Heterodox Schools of Philosophy

Heterodox schools of philosophy in India is also known as the nastika schools, are those that do not accept the authority of the Vedas, which are considered sacred scriptures in orthodox Hinduism. These schools are significant in the landscape of Indian philosophical thought, offering alternative perspectives on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and soteriology. The main heterodox schools are Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvak philosophy.

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Table of Content

• Basics of Indian Philosophies
• Differences with Orthodox Schools
• Buddhist Philosophy
• Jain Philosophy
• Carvaka Philosophy
• Additional Heterodox Schools
• Impact of Indian Philosophy
• Conclusion

Basics of Indian Philosophy

• It comprises the philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent, and consisting of numerous schools of thought that focus on essence of being, wisdom, and emancipation.
• Since medieval India (ca.1000–1500), schools of Indian philosophical thought have been classified by the Brahmanical tradition as either orthodox or non-orthodox (āstika or nāstika).
• There are six schools of orthodox Hindu philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta.
• The four heterodox schools include Jain, Buddhist, Ājīvika and Cārvāka – last two are also schools of Hinduism.
• However, other methods of classification are Vidyaranya which dentifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions.
• According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the earliest are from period of Upanishads in later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), constitute “the earliest philosophical compositions of the world.”
• Competition and integration between the various schools was intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BCE and 200 CE.
• Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Śaiva and Advaita Vedanta survived, but others, like Samkhya and Ājīvika, did not; they were either assimilated or went extinct.
• Subsequent centuries produced commentaries and reformulations continuing up to as late as the 20th century.
• Authors who gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophies include Swami Vivekananda, Ram Mohan Roy, and Swami Dayananda Saraswati.

General Characteristics of Indian Philosophy

• Diversity of Thought: Indian philosophies range from theistic to atheistic, materialistic to spiritual, but most systems share certain fundamental concerns and concepts.
• Authority of the Vedas: Orthodox (Astika) systems accept the Vedas’ authority, while heterodox (Nastika) systems like Charvaka, Buddhism, and Jainism do not.
• Moksha: The concept of moksha (liberation) is central, though its connection to systematic doctrines varies, Philosophies like Vedanta and Samkhya closely tie their doctrines to moksha.
• Rational Debate: Many philosophical doctrines were debated and decided on rational grounds, independently of religious goals.
• Epistemological, logical, and metaphysical debates were common across schools.
• Intuitive Knowledge: Indian philosophers emphasize the importance of intuitive knowledge, supported by logic and Philosophy is seen as achieving religious truth, with theoretical understanding.
• Key Concepts:
  • Atman (self/soul): Represents the inner essence of individuals.
  • Karma (action): Refers to the moral efficacy of actions, a uniquely Indian concept.
  • Moksha (liberation): The highest ideal of freedom from the cycle of birth and death.

Differences with Orthodox Schools

• The heterodox schools of Indian philosophy, also known as Nastika schools, reject the authority of the Vedas and question the existence of God.
• This distinction between orthodox (Astika) and heterodox (Nastika) is largely a Western construct, not rooted in traditional Sanskrit scholarship.
• Unorthodox (nastika) systems or heterodox schools are those that do not acknowledge the authority of the Vedas.
• Epistemology and Logic: Indian logic focuses on cognition rather than abstract propositions, integrating psychology and epistemology.
• Mathematics & History: Indian thought does not traditionally raise philosophical problems related to mathematics or history, instead focuses on metaphysical, ethical, and spiritual questions.
• Systematic Presentation: Indian philosophical systems (darshanas) are classified in a way that no new system has been added since the classical period.
• Philosophical development involves commentary (bhashya) and sub-commentary (tika) rather than the creation of entirely new systems.
• Role of Sacred Texts: Spiritual sciences rely more on them, while logical systems do so less. Philosophers like Shankara allow reasoning to be free unless it contradicts the scriptures.
• Mythology and Theism: Mythology’s influence declines with philosophical systematization, though it persists in metaphorical forms.
  • Theistic beliefs vary, some systems are theistic, others atheistic, and some indifferent to the concept of God.

Forms of Argument and Presentation

• Traditional Affiliations: Philosophers align themselves with traditional schools (darshanas) and contribute through commentaries rather than claiming originality.

Theism vs. Atheism:

• The classification into astika and nastika pertains to beliefs about the Vedas and the transcendent world rather than the existence of God.
• Theistic systems like Nyaya-Vaisheshika and non-Advaita Vedanta contrast with non-theistic systems like Samkhya and Purva-Mimamsa.

Buddhist Philosophy

• Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince later known as the Buddha.
• Its foundation lies in the Four Noble Truths, which recognize the presence of suffering, delineate its origins, advocate for its eradication, and furnish a pathway to attain enlightenment.
• Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or nonexistence of a God or gods.
• The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, though some sects (notably Tibetan Buddhism) do venerate a number of gods drawn in from local indigenous belief systems.
• Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts.
• Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical being and non-being, and this critique is inextricable from the founding of Buddhism.
• Buddhism shares many philosophical views with Hinduism, such as belief in karma, a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done.

Core Teachings:

• Four Noble Truths:
• There is suffering in life.
• Desire is the cause of suffering.
• Suffering can be ended by eliminating desire.
• The way to end suffering is through the Eightfold Path.

Eightfold Path:

1. Right Vision: Understanding the transient nature of life and striving for salvation.
2. Right Resolve: Cultivating willpower to overcome desires and harmful thoughts.
3. Right Speech: Avoiding falsehoods and harmful speech.
4. Right Conduct: Avoiding actions harmful to oneself and others.
5. Right Livelihood: Earning a living through honest and ethical means.
6. Right Effort: Avoiding negative thoughts and emotions.
7. Right Mindfulness: Maintaining mental and physical health through awareness.
8. Right Concentration: Achieving focus and meditation leading to nirvana.

These steps are grouped into three practices:

• Right Morality (sila): Right speech, action, and livelihood.
• Right Concentration (samadhi): Right effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
• Right Wisdom (prajna): Right views and intention.

Scriptures:

• Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for monastic life (written by Upali)
• Sutta Pitaka: Buddha’s sermons and teachings (written by Ananda)
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and doctrinal analyses (written by Mahakashyap)

The Four Noble Truths and the Nature of Suffering

Against this intellectual backdrop Gautama Buddha, introduced the Four Noble Truths, foundational to Buddhist teaching:

1. Dukkha: Commonly translated as “suffering,” it encompasses dissatisfaction and discomfort with the transient nature of existence.
2. Origination of Dukkha: Dukkha arises from tanha (craving or desire).
3. Cessation of Dukkha: Eliminating craving ends dukkha.
4. Path to Cessation: The Eightfold Path leads to enlightenment and the cessation of dukkha.
5. Buddha’s understanding of dukkha extends beyond ordinary suffering to include the impermanence of pleasure and inherent dissatisfaction in the transient aggregates (form, feeling, conception, disposition, and consciousness) that constitute the self.

Concepts of Anatta and Nibbana

Central to early Buddhism are the notions of anatta (no-self) and nibbana (nirvana):

• Anatta: Rejects the existence of a permanent, unchanging self.
  • It counters both eternalism (the belief in an eternal self) and annihilationism (the belief in the self’s total annihilation at death).
• Nibbana: Described both negatively (as the cessation of passion and suffering) and positively (as a state of bliss and freedom).
  • It represents the ultimate liberation, free from the cycle of rebirth and the laws of causality.

Councils and Sects of Buddhism

Buddhist Councils:

Major Sects

1. Theravada Buddhism (Teaching of the Elders):
2. Regions: Predominantly in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia.
3. Characteristics: It emphasizes the original teachings and practices of the Buddha. Theravada focuses on monastic life and meditation, striving for individual enlightenment (Arhatship).
4. Mahayana Buddhism (Greater Vehicle):
5. Regions: Common in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan.
6. Characteristics: Bodhisattva path, where the goal is to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. It incorporates texts and teachings like concept of emptiness (Shunyata) and the use of skillful means (Upaya).
7. India: Modern-day Mahayana followers in India include Tibetan refugees and various local communities in the Himalayan regions, such as Ladakh, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
8. Vajrayana Buddhism (Diamond Vehicle or Thunderbolt Vehicle):
9. Regions: Predominantly in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, and parts of Nepal and India.
10. Characteristics: Esoteric practices, rituals, and meditation techniques. It focuses on the rapid path to enlightenment through the use of mantras, mudras, mandalas, and tantric practices.
11. India: Mainly practiced in regions with Tibetan influence, such as Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh (notably Dharamshala, the residence of the Dalai Lama).

Minor Sects and Movements

• Navayana Buddhism: A modern Buddhist movement in India, initiated by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1956, focusing on social justice and equality. It is primarily followed by Dalits who converted to Buddhism to escape the caste system.
• Zen Buddhism: A form of Mahayana Buddhism that influenced the West and Indian intellectual circles, it is not widely practiced as a traditional religious community in India.
• Pure Land Buddhism: Another Mahayana tradition with a focus on devotion to Amitabha Buddha, more prevalent in East Asia than in India.

Differences from other ideologies

• Buddhism emerged within a rich religious and philosophical milieu in India, building on existing Brahmanic and non-Brahmanic ideas.
• In the 6th century BCE, various schools of thought were already challenging Brahmanic doctrines of atman (soul), karma (action), and moksha (liberation).

Notable among these were:

• Naturalists like Purana Kassapa, who denied the efficacy of moral actions.
• Determinists like Makkhali Gosala of the Ajivika sect, who denied free will and the significance of sin.
• Materialists like Ajita Keshakambalin, who rejected notions of virtue, vice, and an afterlife.
• Ascetics like Nigantha Nataputta (identified with Mahavira, the founder of Jainism), who emphasized salvation through self-discipline.
• Skeptics like Sanjaya Belathiputta, who refrained from definitive answers regarding an afterlife.
• These thinkers shared a rejection of Brahmanic sacrificial polytheism and the mysticism of the Upanishads, emphasizing instead the rule of natural law.

Early Theories of Kingship and State

• Early Buddhist developments and philosophical portions of the Mahabharata reveal a complex interplay of ideas challenging traditional Brahmanic doctrines.
• The Mahabharata’s Shanti Parvan explores theories of kingship’s origins, describing an era without kings as either anarchic or peaceful.
• Kingship is depicted as a divine institution established for protection, with dandaniti (punishment) subordinated to rajadharma (king’s duty), affirming the moral law’s supremacy over the king.
• This promoted new paths to spiritual liberation, and addressing governance’s ethical dimensions.

Jain Philosophy

• Jainism offers a path of self-discipline and ethical living aimed at achieving spiritual liberation.
• Its teachings, emphasizing non-violence, equality, and the rejection of ritualistic practices, provide a comprehensive framework for personal and spiritual development.
• In the 6th century BC, Jainism emerged in India as a response to the prevailing Vedic religion, which had become highly ritualistic and hierarchical.
• This religion traces its origins to twenty-four teachers, known as Tirthankaras, who are revered for establishing a path to spiritual liberation.
• The term ‘Jaina’ comes from ‘Jina,’ meaning ‘conqueror,’ referring to those who have conquered their desires and attachments to attain liberation.
• Jainism emphasizes a path of non-violence, self-discipline, and asceticism, focusing on personal effort to progress spiritually.
• In the 6th century BC, Jainism emerged in India as a response to the prevailing Vedic religion, which had become highly ritualistic and hierarchical.
• It espouses the ideals of correct philosophy, correct knowledge, and correct behavior in order to attain enlightenment (Nirvana).
• Asceticism and nonviolence (Ahimsa) are central tenets of Jainism. In contrast to the Vedas, it emphasizes the value of morality and self-control.

Factors Leading to the Rise of Jainism

• Religious Unrest: Widespread dissatisfaction with the complex rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion.
• Domination of Brahmans: The Brahman class asserted superiority, creating social divisions and tensions.
• Kshatriya and Vaishya Opposition: These classes resisted Brahmanical dominance.
• Equality in Jainism: Jainism’s egalitarian principles attracted those suffering from the Varna-based discrimination.
• Accessible Teachings: Mahavira’s use of the vernacular made his teachings comprehensible and appealing to the masses.
• Simple Doctrine: The straightforward and practical ethical teachings of Mahavira offered a clear and accessible path to spiritual liberation.
• Spread: Jainism spread through the efforts of Mahavira, his disciples, and Jain monks.
• It received patronage from various rulers and spread to different parts of India, including Mathura and Ujjain.

Key Concepts in Jainism:

Jainism is non-theistic and pluralistic, denying a single creator god and emphasizing the existence of infinite souls. The philosophy outlines nine fundamental truths or Nav-tattva:

1. Jiva (Soul): The conscious, eternal element that undergoes rebirth and can achieve liberation.
2. Ajiva (Non-soul): Includes dharma (medium of motion), adharma (medium of rest), akash (space), pudgala (matter), and kala (time).
3. Punya (Merit): Accumulated through good deeds and religious practices.
4. Papa (Sin): Results from harmful actions and leads to bondage.
5. Asrava (Influx of Karma): The inflow of karmic particles into the soul.
6. Samvara (Stoppage of Karma): Preventing the influx of karmic particles through self-control and ethical practices.
7. Bandha (Bondage): The binding of the soul with karmic particles.
8. Nirjara (Shedding of Karma): The elimination of accumulated karma.
9. Moksha (Liberation): The ultimate goal of Jainism, where the soul is freed from karmic bondage and achieves a state of perfect knowledge and bliss.

Triratna (Three Jewels)

To achieve liberation, Jains practice the Three Jewels:

• Samyak Darshan (Right View): Seeing things as they are, free from superstitions and false beliefs.
• Samyak Gyan (Right Knowledge): Acquiring true knowledge through the teachings of the Tirthankaras.
• Samyak Acharan (Right Conduct): Living ethically, practicing non-violence, and detaching from material possessions.

Concepts of Sin and Karma

• Jainism emphasizes avoiding sin and accumulating good karma.
• Sin includes actions like untruth, theft, anger, violence, greed, and false perception.
• Karma theory asserts that one’s actions determine their future, emphasizing the soul’s immortality and the importance of ethical living.

Theory of Anekantavada:

• Anekantavada is a basic principle of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true.
• Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis (those who have achieved infinite knowledge), can know the complete truth, and that all others can only know a part of the truth.
• Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism.

Beliefs:

• The universe is composed of seven fundamental elements: Jiva (soul), Ajiva (non-soul), Asrava (influx of karma), Bandha (bondage of karma), Samvara (stoppage of karma), Nirjara (eradication of karma), and Moksha (liberation).
• Astikaya (substance with physical form) and Anastikaya (time, without physical form).
• Emphasis on eternal substances and ever-changing attributes, e.g., the soul (substance) and mood (attribute).

Key figures, division, & Councils

Key Figures

• Rishabhdev: He was the first Tirthankara and founder of jiansm, he belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty.
• Parshvanatha: The 23rd Tirthankara, a precursor to Mahavira, who preached non-violence and asceticism.
• Vardhamana Mahavira (599–527 B.C.E.): The 24th Tirthankara, born in in Kundagrama.
  • He left home at 30, attained enlightenment after 12 years of asceticism, and preached for 30 years.

Sects of Jainism

Jainism is divided into two major sects: Digambara and Svetambara.

Differences between them include:

• Clothing: Digambaras practice nudity as a form of renunciation, while Svetambaras wear white clothes.
• Views on Women: Digambaras believe women cannot achieve liberation without being reborn as men, while Svetambaras believe women can attain liberation.
• Scriptures and Practices: Each sect follows different texts and practices, reflecting their historical and philosophical differences.

Jain Councils

• First Council (300 BC, Pataliputra): Presided over by Sthulbhadra, it organized the Jain canon into 12 Angas.
• Second Council (512 AD, Vallabhi): Presided over by Devardhigani Kshemasarmana, it included new texts known as Upangas.

Teachings of Mahavira

Mahavira’s teachings focus on liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth through the practice of the five vows (Panchamahavratas):

• Ahimsa (Non-violence): Avoiding harm to all living beings.
• Satya (Truth): Speaking the truth.
• Asteya (Non-stealing): Not taking what is not given.
• Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness): Renouncing material possessions.
• Brahmacharya (Celibacy): Added by Mahavira to the pre-existing vows.

Relevance of Jain Ideology Today

Jain principles are highly relevant in addressing contemporary issues:

• Anektavada: Promotes tolerance and intellectual diversity.
• Non-violence: Advocates for peace in a world threatened by nuclear weapons.
• Aparigraha: Encourages moderation in consumption and reduction of material greed.
• Triratna: Promotes ethical conduct, knowledge, and belief as paths to liberation and social harmony.

Carvaka Philosophy

• Carvaka philosophy, alternatively referred to as Lokayata, is a materialistic school of thought that denies the Vedas’ authority.
• It emphasizes the direct perception as the sole method of ascertaining truth.
• Founder: Brihaspati (associated with Charvaka, author of Barhaspatya Sutras)
• This philosophy rejects the existence of a higher power and advocates for the pursuit of happiness in one’s life.
• Carvaka is characterized as a materialistic and atheistic school of thought, but not considered to be part of orthodox schools of Hinduism.
• This empiricist school of thought rejects supernatural claims, religious authority, and the acceptance of inference and evidence beyond direct perception.

Core Teachings:

• Materialism: Focus on direct perception as the sole means of knowledge.
• Ethics: Advocated for a life of pleasure and enjoyment, rejecting afterlife or karma.
• Skepticism: Denied the supernatural and promoted empirical observation.

Core principles of Charvaka philosophy are:

• Direct Awareness: Reality can only be established through direct perception.
• Rejection of Supernatural: Anything that cannot be perceived by the senses does not exist.
• Material Composition: The world is composed solely of air, earth, fire, and water.
• Pleasure as the Ultimate Good: The only evil is suffering, and the ultimate good is pleasure.
• Hedonistic Aim: The fundamental aim of human existence is to seek pleasure and avoid misery.
• Critique of Religion: Religion is seen as a tool created by the powerful to exploit the weak.
• It emphasized perception (pramana) and observation (anubhava) as the only reliable sources of knowledge.

Vedic Period and Charvaka

• Charvaka philosophy emerged as a reaction against the prevailing Vedic worldview, based on a cosmos governed by fixed laws (Rita) and overseen by a supreme entity (Brahman).
• The Vedas, comprising the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda, form the foundation of Hindu religious and philosophical thought.
• Charvakas were atheists, rejecting concepts such as karma, reincarnation, and an afterlife.
• They believed in enjoying physical pleasures while minimizing pain, considering wisdom to lie in balancing pleasure and suffering.
• With death seen as inevitable, living life to the fullest was considered the most rational course of action.

Additional Heterodox Schools

Ajivika Philosophy

Notable Figures: Makkhali Gosala, Sanjaya Belatthaputta

Core Beliefs:

• Niyati (Determinism): Everything is predetermined by cosmic laws.
• Rejection of Karma: Viewed karma as an incorrect logical construct.
• Asceticism: Emphasized strict ascetic practices.

Ajnana Philosophy

Key Proponent: Sanjaya Belatthiputta

• Core Beliefs:
  • Skepticism: Claimed that true knowledge, especially metaphysical knowledge, is unattainable.
  • Rebuttal: Focused on refuting other philosophies rather than proposing a positive doctrine.

Impact of Indian Philosophy

• The schools of Indian philosophy have had a profound impact on Indian society and culture. They have shaped the way people think, reason, and approach life’s existential questions.
• Rational Thinking: Indian philosophy encouraged rational thinking and the search for logical explanations. It prompted individuals to question blind faith and seek reasoned justifications for their beliefs.
• Self-Realization: They encouraged individuals to explore their inner selves and strive for spiritual growth.
• Ethics and Morality: Indian philosophy provided guidelines for leading a righteous life and emphasized the importance of virtues such as honesty, compassion, and non-violence.
• Liberation and Salvation: The ultimate goal of Indian philosophy, across different schools, is liberation from the cycle of birth and death or attaining salvation. This focus on liberation from suffering and the pursuit of enlightenment shaped the spiritual aspirations of individuals.
• Diverse Spiritual Practices:  Yoga, meditation, and rituals. These practices continue to play a significant role in the lives of individuals seeking spiritual growth and well-being.

Conclusion

The heterodox schools of Indian philosophy offer diverse perspectives, ranging from the empiricism and materialism of Charvaka to the rigorous ethical and ascetic practices of Jainism and Ajivika, to the middle path and profound teachings of Buddhism. Each school presents a unique approach to understanding reality, human existence, and the path to liberation, emphasizing practical ethics and direct experience over scriptural authority. The schools of Indian philosophy fostered critical thinking, self-reflection, and ethical living, contributing to the overall intellectual and cultural development of Indian society

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