Early Phase of Indian National Congress (INC)

The Indian National Congress (INC) was established as a common front for nationalist sentiments in India. Various political organizations and the ferment of nationalist ideas had prepared the ground for its foundation. Historians view the INC as the visible embodiment of the national uprisings throughout India.

In this article, you will know about the Early Phase of Indian National Congress (INC), factors of formation, its role and significance of its sessions for Indian National Movement. To explore more interesting UPSC Modern History topics of GS Paper -1 like Early Phase of Indian National Congress (INC), check out other articles and IAS Notes of IASToppers.   

Table of Content

• Factors that led to Formation of Indian National Congress (INC)
• Foundation of the Indian National Congress (1885)
• Major Objectives of the Indian National Congress (INC)
• Important Sessions of Indian National Congress
• Evaluation of the Initial Phase of Indian National Congress
• Conclusion
• FAQs

Factors that led to formation of Indian National Congress (INC):

The formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 was influenced by a combination of political, economic, social, and cultural factors.

Administrative and Economic Unification

• Political Unity: The British established a unified administrative system across India, which included a common legal system, bureaucracy, and civil services.
• This political unity contributed to a sense of collective identity and purpose among Indians.
• Economic Exploitation: British economic policies had detrimental effects on various segments of Indian society, including peasants, workers, and industrialists.
• The economic drain, commercialization of agriculture, and famines highlighted the exploitative nature of colonial rule, fostering economic nationalism.

Spread of Western Education and Ideology

• The introduction of English as the medium of instruction created a new class of educated Indians and exposed them to modern Western ideas of liberty, equality, and self-government.
• The ideas of European intellectuals such as Milton, Bentham, Rousseau, and Voltaire influenced the Indian intelligentsia, encouraging them to advocate for political rights and self-rule.

Development of Communication Infrastructure

• Railways and Telegraph: The development of railways and the telegraph system during British rule facilitated greater interaction among Indians from different regions, fostering a sense of national unity.
• Modern Postal System: Improved communication systems helped disseminate nationalist ideas and information rapidly across the country.

Emergence of the Modern Press

• Newspapers: The expansion of the press enabled the spread of patriotic messages and liberal ideas.
• Newspapers such as The Hindu, Patriot, Amrita Bazaar Patrika, Kesari, and Mahratta played a crucial role in building public opinion against colonial policies.
• Vernacular Press: Despite restrictions like the Vernacular Press Act, Indian-owned newspapers continued to advocate for nationalist causes and criticize British rule.

Rediscovery of India’s Historical Heritage

• Cultural Revival: The research conducted by European and Indian scholars revealed India’s rich historical and cultural heritage, instilling pride and a sense of identity among Indians.
• Literary Works: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s “Anand Math” and Dinbandhu Mitra’s “Neel Darpan” highlighted the plight of Indians under British rule, galvanizing public sentiment.

Socio-Religious Reforms

• Movements like Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and the Ramakrishna Mission aimed to reform Indian society by challenging social evils like caste discrimination and superstitions.
• These movements promoted ideas of equality and justice, aligning with nationalist sentiments.
• Leaders like Swami Vivekananda advocated for a revitalized Indian identity and self-confidence, which resonated with the nationalist agenda.

Emergence of the Urban Middle-Class Intelligentsia

• Western Education: The introduction of Western education created a new urban middle-class intelligentsia that was well-versed in British policies and administration.
• Political Leadership: This educated class played a leading role in the nationalist movement, organizing and leading political activities and debates.

Lord Lytton’s Reactive Policies

• Economic Strain: Policies such as the highly costly Second Afghan War, abolition of import duties on British textiles, and the Arms Act of 1878 led to widespread discontent.
• Civil Services Examination: The reduction in the age limit for the Indian Civil Services Examination and other discriminatory policies fueled further resentment.

Role of Press and Literature

• Vernacular Press Act: The restrictive Vernacular Press Act of 1878 led to a backlash from Indian newspapers like Bazaar Patrika, which continued to find ways to publish nationalist content.
  • The Hindu newspaper in Madras also emerged in response to Lytton’s Press Act.
• Nationalist Literature: Writers and poets used literature to spread nationalist ideas and criticize British rule, inspiring people to join the movement.

Leadership and Organization

• Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, were already active in various political and social organizations, and their efforts culminated in the formation of the Indian National Congress.
• As a retired British civil servant, Hume was instrumental in bringing together prominent Indian leaders to form the Indian National Congress.
• He believed that a political organization could serve as a ‘safety valve’ for the discontent brewing among Indians.

Foundation of the Indian National Congress (1885)

• The establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) is primarily attributed to Allan Octavian Hume (AO Hume), a retired British member of the Indian Civil Services.
• With the approval of Viceroy Lord Dufferin, Hume successfully united prominent political leaders to form the Indian National Congress.
• Prior to the formation of the Congress, the Indian National Conference, led by SN Bannerjee and Anand Mohan Bose, had conducted two sessions in 1883 and 1885.
• Additionally, Hume had founded the Indian National Union in 1884, which is considered the precursor to the Indian National Congress.
• Hume served as the General Secretary of the Indian National Congress from 1885 to 1906. During the Madras Session in 1887, he published a pamphlet titled “An Old Men’s Hope.”

First Session of INC:

• The inaugural session of the Indian National Congress took place on 28th December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala in Bombay, under the presidency of WC Bonnerjee.
• This first session attracted 72 delegates from across India, with the number rising to 436 by 1886.
• In 1889, a British Committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London under the chairmanship of William Wedderburn, with a journal named “India” being initiated.

Notable Leaders:

• In its early phase, the Indian National Congress was dominated by moderate leaders who believed in the essential justice and goodness of the British nation.
• Notable Congress Presidents during this period included Dadabhai Naoroji, Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, P Anandacharlu, Surendranath Banerjee, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Ananda Mohan Bose, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

Features of the Indian National Congress

• First National Political Movement: Indian National Congress was the first national political movement in India, initially focused on increasing Indian participation in political affairs.
• Evolution of Goals: Initially aimed at constitutional reforms, later upgraded its goal to complete independence.
• Moderate Beginnings: In its early years, Indian National Congress employed constitutional debate and tactics, with demands limited to increasing the proportion of Indians in the military and administration.
• Shift to Extremism: By 1905, the party split into moderates and extremists, with the latter advocating more radical approaches.
• Wide Participation: Provincial conferences, organizations, media, and literature all joined the INC in nationalist activities.

Major Objectives of the Indian National Congress (INC)

1. A Pan India Organization: Establish a democratic, nationalist movement by forming a pan-India organization.
2. Anti-colonialism: Promote amicable ties among nationalist political activists from diverse sections of the country by developing and propagating an anti-colonial nationalist ideology.
3. Nationalism: Develop and consolidate national unity among all people, regardless of religion, caste, or province.
4. Raise awareness among people: Regarding exploitative colonial policies and Indian political rights, push for Indian representation in councils, and Indianization of the civil service.
5. Forward-looking Political and Economic Programme: Formulate and propose public demands to the government to unite the people around a shared economic and political agenda.

Policies Opted by Indian National Congress During 1885–1905

• Civil Rights: Advocated for freedom of expression, the press, and the right to organize meetings.
• Executive Branch: Pressed the administration to end discriminatory practices and develop public-benefit programs, including appointing Indians to government positions and establishing agricultural banks to assist farmers.
• Constitution: Sought to strengthen the Legislative Council’s power and include elected Indian representatives.
• Economy: Criticized British policies that led to economic difficulties for Indians. Proposed the development of modern industries, Indianization of governmental services, and abolition of salt taxes, especially for low-income people.

Important Sessions of Indian National Congress

Evaluation of the Initial Phase of Indian National Congress

• Progressive Representation: Representing the most progressive forces of the time.
• National Awakening: Creating a wide national awakening and fostering the feeling of belonging to one nation.
• Political Training: Training people in political work and popularizing modern ideas.
• Exposing Colonial Exploitation: Exposing the exploitative nature of colonial rule and undermining its moral foundations.
• Practical Political Work: Basing political work on hard realities rather than shallow sentiments.
• Political Truth: Establishing the basic political truth that India should be ruled in the interest of Indians.
• Foundation for Future Movements: Creating a solid base for a more vigorous, militant, mass-based national movement in subsequent years.

Theories Related to the Formation of Indian National Congress

The Safety Valve Theory:

• This theory, which originated from a statement by WC Bonnerjee in 1898, suggests that Hume acted under the direct advice of Lord Dufferin.
• It posits that Dufferin wanted to create a political organization through which the government could understand genuine wishes of the people and prevent potential political outbursts.
• This theory, known as the Safety Valve Theory, was supported by radical critics like Lala Lajpat Rai and RP Dutt.
• However, it lost credibility with the opening of Dufferin’s private papers, which indicated that Hume took advantage of an already existing atmosphere rather than being directed by Dufferin.

Official Conspiracy Theory:

• The idea that the Indian National Congress, an All-India Political Organisation, was initiated by AO Hume, an Englishman, raised many speculations.
• It is believed that Hume, during his service, realized the suffering of the masses and the alienation of intellectuals could accumulate discontent, posing a threat to British rule.
• Contemporary historians rejected the official conspiracy theory, arguing that Indian leaders wanted to proceed cautiously to avoid British suppression.
• Hume’s background as a British ex-civil servant made it less likely for the establishment of a political organization by him to arouse hostility in official circles.

Conclusion

These factors collectively contributed to the formation of the Indian National Congress, which became the primary platform for India’s struggle for independence. Key leaders of this period included Dadabhai Naoroji, who highlighted the economic drain theory, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who emphasized moderate reform and dialogue. The early phase laid the groundwork for a broader and more assertive national movement that would later evolve into a struggle for complete independence.

Ref: Source-1

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