Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama, known as Buddha, was born in a royal family at Kapilavastu, led to rise of Buddhist philosophy in the 6th century BC. Through rigorous meditation and ascetic practices, he attained enlightenment, becoming Buddha or “Enlightened One.” His teachings laid the foundation for Buddhism, recorded in the Tripitakas, particularly the Abhidhamma Pitaka, which integrates philosophy, psychology, and ethics into a liberation framework.

In this article, you will know about the rise, spread, sects, key literature, architecture, patronage and Buddhist Councils, especially in India. To explore more interesting UPSC History topics of GS Paper -1 like Buddhism, check out other articles and IAS Notes of IASToppers.   

Table of Content

• Spread of Buddhism
• Ideology/ Philosophy
• Sects under Buddhism
• Buddhist Councils and Patronage
• Buddhist Stupas and other structures
• Important Literature
• Decline of Buddhism
• Important Terms related to Buddhism
• Conclusion
• Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Spread of Buddhism

• Buddhism arose in the 6th century BCE in the Gangetic plain of northern India during a period of second urbanization and significant social change.
• Discontentment with Vedic rituals and the rigid caste system led many to embrace Buddhism, which emphasized equality and personal spiritual development.
• The support of merchants and artisans further facilitated its growth.
• Under the Maurya dynasty, particularly Emperor Ashoka, Buddhism saw extensive expansion within India and beyond.
• Buddhism rapidly gained followers in regions like Magadha, Kosala, and Kaushambi, appealing to those discontented with the caste system and rigid social hierarchy.
• The teachings of Buddha, focusing on compassion, non-violence, and personal responsibility, resonated widely.

Key factors in the spread included:

• Conversion of Rulers and Elites: Rulers like Ashoka promoted Buddhism extensively, sending missionaries abroad and establishing monasteries.
• Monastic Network: The establishment of monasteries facilitated the spread of teachings and provided support for monks.
• Accessibility: Buddhism’s use of the Pali language made its teachings accessible to all social classes, unlike the Sanskrit-restricted Brahmanical religion.

Spread Outside India

• Hinayana Buddhism: Spread to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand during Ashoka’s reign, laying the foundation for Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia.
• Mahayana Buddhism: The Kushan Emperor Kanishka supported the spread to Central Asia.
  • Through the Silk Route, Mahayana Buddhism reached China, where it interacted with Confucian and Daoist traditions, eventually spreading to Japan and Korea.
• Vajrayana Buddhism: Developed in India around the 8th century and spread to Tibet, where it merged with the indigenous Bon religion.
• Prominent figures like Atisha Dipankara and Padmasambhava were instrumental in propagating Vajrayana Buddhism in Tibet and Southeast Asia.

Ideology/Philosophy

The Four Noble Truths

Buddha’s teachings focus on practical solutions to suffering, encapsulated in the Four Noble Truths:

• Duhkha (Suffering): Life is inherently full of suffering, encompassing birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, and despair, all arising from attachment.
• Duhkha-samudaya (Cause of Suffering): The cause of suffering is attachment, translated from the term “trishna,” meaning thirst or desire, which includes lust, craving, and clinging. Hatred (dvesha) and ignorance (avidya) also contribute to suffering.
• Duhkha-nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): Suffering can be stopped. Nirvana is the state where all attachment and suffering are extinguished, achievable in this life by eliminating clinging, hatred, and ignorance.
• Duhkha-nirodha-marga (Path to End Suffering): The Eightfold Path is the way to end suffering, leading to a state free from misery.
• Eightfold Path (Astangika-marga): A comprehensive guide to ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom, divided into: wisdom (prajña), ethical conduct (sila), and mental discipline (samadhi).

Wisdom (Prajña)

• Right Views: Understanding the Four Noble Truths, recognizing the imperfection, impermanence, and insubstantiality of all things.
• Right Resolve/Aspiration: Cultivating the determination to free oneself from attachment, hate, and ignorance.

Ethical Conduct (Sila)

• Right Speech: Abstaining from lying, gossiping, and harmful speech. Speech should reflect truthfulness and kindness.
• Right Action/Conduct: Following the Pancha-Sila (Five Precepts): refraining from killing, stealing, sensual misconduct, lying, and intoxication.
• Right Livelihood: Earning a living in a way that does not harm others and is honest.

Mental Discipline (Samadhi)

• Right Effort: Controlling and cultivating one’s mind, abandoning negative thoughts, and fostering positive ones through non-attachment and mindfulness.
• Right Mindfulness: Practicing “bare attention” to thoughts and perceptions without attachment, extending mindfulness to everyday life to develop richer awareness.
• Right Concentration: Achieving deeper stages of concentration through meditation, leading to Nirvana. This involves four stages:
  • Reasoning and investigation of truths, leading to joy from pure thinking.
  • Unruffled meditation free from reasoning, leading to tranquility.
  • Detachment from even the joy of tranquility, leading to indifference to joy but still a bodily ease.
  • Perfect equanimity and indifference, detachment from all bodily ease, achieving Nirvana.

Buddhism and Western Psychology

• The mid-20th century saw significant interactions between psychoanalysts and Buddhist scholars, highlighting the convergence of Buddhism and Western psychology in theory and practice.
• Alan Watts observed that Buddhism resembles psychotherapy more than traditional Western philosophy or religion.

Sects under Buddhism

Doctrinal Debates and Sect Formation

• After Buddha’s death, doctrinal differences led to the formation of various Buddhist sects:
• Early Division:
  • Sthaviravadins: Strict adherence to the Vinaya code of monastic discipline.
  • Mahasanghikas: Advocated more relaxed norms.
• Emergence of Mahayana: Around the 1st century CE, Mahayana Buddhism emerged, emphasizing the worship of Buddha images and the concept of Bodhisattvas, in contrast to the more austere Hinayana.
• Development of Vajrayana:
• By the 7th century, Vajrayana Buddhism evolved as a tantric branch of Mahayana, incorporating ritualistic and esoteric practices.

Buddhism has developed into numerous schools over its long history, but four of the most significant and widely recognized schools are Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Zen Buddhism

1. Theravada Buddhism (The School of the Elders)

• Theravada, meaning “Teaching of the Elders,” is considered the oldest form of Buddhism.
• It aims to preserve the original teachings of the Buddha as found in the Pali Canon, the oldest Buddhist scriptures.

Beliefs and Practices:

• Focuses on the individual’s path to enlightenment.
• Emphasizes the monastic life and strict adherence to the Vinaya (monastic rules).
• The goal is to become an arhat (enlightened being) who has achieved nirvana.

Key Characteristics:

• Highly conservative in doctrine and practice.
• Meditation practices, particularly Vipassana (insight meditation), are central.
• Lay followers support the monastic community (Sangha) and follow the Five Precepts.
• Geographical Influence: Predominantly practiced in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma (Myanmar), Laos, and Cambodia.

2. Mahayana Buddhism (The Great Vehicle)

• Mahayana is a more liberal and accessible form of Buddhism that emerged around the 1st century CE as a reaction against the perceived rigidity of Theravada.

Beliefs and Practices:

• Emphasizes the Bodhisattva path: becoming enlightened beings who delay their own nirvana to help others achieve enlightenment.
• Utilizes a vast array of scriptures, including the Mahayana Sutras, which are written in Sanskrit.

Key Characteristics:

• More inclusive and less monastic-focused than Theravada.
• Recognizes a multitude of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
• Practices include a variety of rituals, chanting, and meditation techniques.
• Geographical Influence: Predominantly practiced in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Mongolia.

3. Vajrayana Buddhism (The Diamond Vehicle)

• Vajrayana is a complex and esoteric form of Buddhism that developed out of Mahayana Buddhism and incorporates tantric practices.

Beliefs and Practices:

• Focuses on the rapid path to enlightenment through advanced meditation techniques and rituals.
• Utilizes mantras (sacred sounds), mudras (hand gestures), mandalas (symbolic diagrams), and complex visualizations.
• Believes in the transformation of negative energies into positive ones through tantric practices.

Key Characteristics:

• Heavily influenced by the indigenous Tibetan religion, Bon.
• Predominantly practiced in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Mongolia.
• Guided by the teachings of a guru or lama.
• Emphasizes the role of ritual and devotion in spiritual practice.

4. Zen Buddhism (A School of Mahayana Buddhism)

• Zen, meaning “meditation” in Japanese (from the Chinese “Chan“), is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that emphasizes direct experience and meditation practice.
• It developed in China as Chan Buddhism before spreading to Japan, where it became known as Zen.

Beliefs and Practices:

• Focuses on zazen (seated meditation) and the practice of mindfulness.
• Emphasizes direct, experiential realization of enlightenment rather than intellectual study.
• Uses koans (paradoxical questions or statements) to provoke deep thought and insight.

Geographical Influence:

• Predominantly practiced in Japan, with significant influence in Korea (as Seon) and China (as Chan).

Key Characteristics:

• Minimalist approach to ritual and doctrine.
• Strong emphasis on teacher-student relationships.
• Practices include meditation, mindfulness, and simple, everyday tasks as forms of spiritual practice.

Buddhist Councils and Patronage

Buddhist Councils

1. First Buddhist Council (c. 483 BCE): Held shortly after the Buddha’s death in Rajgir, it aimed to preserve his teachings (Dharma) and monastic discipline (Vinaya). Mahakasyapa presided over the council, which led to the compilation of the Tripitaka.
2. Second Buddhist Council (c. 383 BCE): Convened in Vaishali, it addressed disputes over monastic rules, leading to the first schism in the Sangha, resulting in the formation of the Sthavira and Mahasanghika schools.
3. Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE): Sponsored by Emperor Ashoka in Pataliputra, it aimed to purify the Sangha of corruption and doctrinal disputes. It also facilitated the compilation of the Kathavatthu and promoted the spread of Buddhism.
4. Fourth Buddhist Council (c. 1st century CE): Held in two sessions—one in Sri Lanka, patronized by King Vattagamani Abhaya, leading to the Pali Canon’s written preservation, and another in Kashmir under King Kanishka, promoting the Sarvastivada school’s doctrines.

Propagation by Different Rulers

• Emperor Ashoka (268-232 BCE): The most significant patron of Buddhism, Ashoka embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga War and became a fervent promoter of the faith. He built stupas, viharas, and pillars inscribed with Buddhist edicts across his empire. Ashoka sent missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia, significantly spreading Buddhism.
• Kushan Empire (1st-3rd centuries CE): Under King Kanishka, Buddhism received substantial patronage. Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council and supported the Mahayana school, contributing to Buddhism’s spread along the Silk Road.
• Gupta Dynasty (4th-6th centuries CE): Although primarily Hindu, Gupta rulers like Chandragupta II supported Buddhism. They sponsored the construction of monasteries and universities such as Nalanda, which became a renowned center for Buddhist learning.
• Harsha (606-647 CE): The last major patron of Buddhism in North India, Emperor Harsha supported the religion through construction projects and organizing the Kanauj Assembly, which promoted Buddhist teachings and debates.

Buddhist Stupas and other structures

Stupas, chaityas, and viharas hold profound significance in Buddhism, each playing a unique role in the religious, spiritual, and social life of Buddhist communities:

Stupas:

• Religious Symbolism: Stupas are primarily symbolic structures representing various aspects of Buddhist cosmology and teachings.
  • They often enshrine relics of Buddha or revered Buddhist figures, serving as objects of veneration and worship.
• Spiritual Significance: Stupas are considered focal points for meditation and mindfulness, providing a sacred space for practitioners to cultivate inner peace and spiritual insight.
• Circumambulating a stupa, known as “pradakshina,” is a common Buddhist practice believed to accumulate merit and purify negative karma.
• Cultural Heritage: Stupas are tangible manifestations of Buddhist faith and devotion, embodying centuries of artistic and architectural innovation.

Chaityas (Prayer Halls):

• Place of Worship: Chaityas are Buddhist prayer halls or sanctuaries where devotees gather to engage in communal worship, chanting, and meditation.
• Community Gathering Spaces: Chaityas serve as focal points for religious and social gatherings, fostering a sense of community and camaraderie among Buddhist practitioners.
• They provide opportunities for shared worship, learning, and fellowship, strengthening the bonds of faith and friendship.

Viharas (Monasteries):

• Monastic Living: Viharas are residential quarters or monastic complexes where Buddhist monks and nuns reside, study, and practice the Dharma (Buddhist teachings).
• They serve as spiritual retreats, providing a supportive environment for contemplation, meditation, and ethical conduct.
• Education: Centers of Buddhist learning and scholarship, where monks and nuns receive formal education in Buddhist scriptures, philosophy, and meditation techniques.
• They serve as repositories of knowledge and wisdom, preserving and transmitting the teachings of Buddha to future generations.
• Social Welfare: Viharas often engage in charitable activities and community outreach programs, offering spiritual guidance, education, and humanitarian aid to the wider society.

Key Stupas in India:

Sanchi Stupa, Madhya Pradesh:

• The Sanchi Stupa, commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, is one of the oldest and most well-preserved stupas in India.
• It consists of a hemispherical dome mounted on a cylindrical base, adorned with intricate carvings and gateways (toranas) depicting scenes from Buddha’s life.
• Sanchi’s monuments span several centuries, dating from the Mauryan Empire (3rd century BCE) to around the 12th century CE.
• The Great Stupa (Stupa No. 1), is the focal point of the complex and is adorned with gates, railings, and toranas (gateways) embellished with intricate carvings and sculptures.
• The complex underwent expansions and renovations over the centuries, particularly during the Shunga and Satavahana periods.
• It has four entrances, with elaborate carvings depicting scenes from the life of Buddha and Jataka tales.
• The structure consists of an anda (hemispheric dome) containing relics of Buddha, a harmika (square railing) atop the dome, and a chhatra (umbrella) crowning the harmika.
• The site also features an Ashokan pillar with inscriptions, symbolically representing Buddha through an empty throne, feet, chhatra, and stupas.
• The complex includes Stupa No. 2 and Stupa No. 3, believed to house relics of arhats and disciples of Buddha, depicted in Indian and Graeco-Buddhist influences.
• The Sanchi Stupa is revered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and serves as a symbol of Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism.

Mahabodhi Stupa, Bodh Gaya:

• Revered as the site of Lord Buddha’s enlightenment, this stupa houses the iconic Shakyamuni Buddha statue and is surrounded by walls depicting historical narratives.
• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a focal point for Buddhist pilgrims.

Other Key stupas:

• Dhamekh Stupa, Sarnath: It is known as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which dates back to the 5th century CE and features a cylindrical tower with a massive stone base.
• Bharhut Stupa, Madhya Pradesh: It is one of the earliest examples of Buddhist art in India (2^nd C) with intricately carved stone railings depicting Jataka tales, scenes from Buddha’s life.
• Kesaria Stupa, Bihar: It is renowned as one of the tallest and largest Buddhist stupas in the world, and marks Lord Buddha’s visit to Kesaputta.
• Maha Stupa, Thotlakunda: It showcases ancient brick architecture and archaeological excavations, providing insights into Buddhist culture and heritage spanning over two millennia.

Important literature

Text	Writer	Important Facts
Milinda Panha	Nagasena	Written in the 1st B.C.; describes the conversation between Greek king Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena; in Pali; question-answer style.
Sariputra Prakaran	Ashvaghosha	Written during the reign of Kushan ruler Kanishka; describes Sariputra being initiated into Buddhism.
Sutralankara	Asanga	Contains main precepts of the Yogachara or Vigyanavadin school of Mahayana Buddhism; written in Sanskrit.
Buddhacharita	Ashvaghosha	Epic describing the life of Buddha from conception to Emperor Ashoka; also called Buddhist Ramayana; written in Sanskrit.
Mahavansh	Sthvir Mahanaam	Meaning “great history”; written in Pali; in poetry style; describes Sri Lankan kings from King Vijay to King Mahasen; famous historical epic of Sinhala literature.
Deepvansh	Sthvir Mahanaam	Famous text about ancient history of Sinhaldweep (Sri Lanka); written in the 4th or 5th century AD; describes missionaries sent by Mauryan emperor Ashoka.
Madhyamik sutra	Nagarjuna	Mahayana sect text; written in the 1st century AD.
Pragyaparmita	Nagarjuna	Related to the Mahayana sect; written in Sanskrit; written in the 1st century AD.
Sullekh	Nagarjuna	Describes principles of Buddhism.
Madhyamakakarika	Nagarjuna	Related to the Mahayana sect.
Visuddhimagga	Buddhaghosa	Composed in Pali; written in the Gupta period; called the Encyclopedia of Buddhism.
Samantapasadika	Buddhaghosa	Written in the Gupta period.
Abhidharmakośa	Vasubandhu	Written in Sanskrit; written in 4th-5th AD.
Nyayabindu	Dharmakirti	Written in the 6th century; related to the Yogachara branch of Mahayana Buddhism.
Hetubindu	Dharmakirti	Written in the 6th century; related to the Yogachara branch of Mahayana Buddhism.
Mahayana Sangrah	Asanga	Written in the post-Gupta period; belongs to the Mahayana sect.
Yogacharya Bhumishastra	Asanga	Belongs to the Mahayana sect.
Vajracchedika	Asanga	Written in the post-Gupta period; belongs to the Mahayana sect.
Lalitavistara	Asanga	Sanskrit Mahayana Buddhist literature; story of Gautama Buddha from descent from Tushita to first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi.
Ashokavadana	Asanga	Written in Sanskrit; part of Divyavadana.
Divyavadana	Asanga	Written in Sanskrit; written in the 4th century; gives information about the history of the Maurya Empire.
Arya Manjusri Mula kalpa	Asanga	Text of the Kriyā-tantra class; affiliated with bodhisattva Mañjuśrī; contains violent, sensual, and sexual tantric rituals.

Decline of Buddhism

• Buddhism’s decline in India was due to a combination of ideological, socio-political, and cultural factors:
• Ideological Decline: Emergence of hierarchical and ritualistic practices within Buddhism, leading to corruption and divergence from original principles.
• Hinduism’s Reform and Assimilation: Hinduism adopted Buddhist practices and reformed itself, assimilating Buddhist concepts.
• Philosophical similarities facilitated Buddhism’s gradual assimilation into Hinduism.
• Loss of Royal Patronage: Decline of supportive dynasties like the Kushanas and the shift of patronage to Brahmanical Hinduism under the Guptas weakened Buddhist institutions.
• Lack of Vernacular Literature: Later Buddhist scriptures in Sanskrit limited their reach to urban elites, restricting expansion to vernacular-speaking masses.
• Foreign Invasions: Invasions by the Huns, Turks, and Islamic invaders led to the destruction of Buddhist sites and institutions, especially in northern India.
• Despite its decline in India, Buddhism thrived in other parts of Asia, maintaining significant influence as Hinayana in Southeast Asia, Mahayana in East Asia, and Vajrayana in Tibet.

Important terms related to Buddhism

Terms	Meaning
Adhitthana	Determination and prayer in Theravada Buddhism.
Agama	Early Buddhist texts grouped into collections.
Amitabha	Buddha of the Western Pure Land.
Tathagatha	Title for Gautama Buddha or a perfected follower.
Anapanasati	Mindfulness of breathing meditation.
Anicca	Impermanence, the constant change in Buddhism.
Arhat	One who attains Nirvana, freed from rebirth.
Bhavacakra	Wheel of life, symbolizing Samsara.
Bhante	Polite term for addressing Buddhist monks.
Bodhisattva	A being progressing towards Buddhahood.
Dhammapada	Collection of Buddha’s teachings in verse.
Dipankara	One of the ancient Buddhas.
Gassho	Gesture of palms together, expressing reverence.
Kakusandha Buddha	One of the Buddhas of antiquity.
Kshanti	Patience, forbearance, and forgiveness.
Kumbhanda	A misshapen, dwarfish entity in Buddhist mythology.
Madhyamaka	School of Buddhist thought founded by Nagarjuna.
Mahamudra	The realization of wisdom and emptiness.
Nekkhamma	Renunciation, freedom from desires in Buddhism.
Nirvana	The highest state of enlightenment in Buddhism.

Conclusion

Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha (“the awakened one”), in the 5th to 4th century BCE, is one of the world’s major religions. Originating in the Indian subcontinent, Buddhism spread across Asia and has now found followers worldwide. Central to Buddhist doctrine are the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which outline the nature of suffering, its causes, and the way to overcome it.
Buddhism has significantly influenced the art, culture, and social structures of countries in which it has been prevalent. Its teachings on peace, compassion, and tolerance have attracted global followers, contributing to its reputation as a religion that transcends cultural and geographical boundaries.

Buddhism continues to adapt to contemporary issues, influencing discussions on mental health, social justice, and environmental concerns, showcasing its timeless relevance in addressing human suffering and promoting a harmonious society.

Ref: Source-1

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