Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution, a pivotal era spanning from the late 18th century to the early 19th century, marked a profound transformation in human history as it shifted societies from agrarian economies to industrial powerhouses. In this article, you will learn definition, pre- Industrial Revolution period, features of Industrial Revolution, its impacts, etc.

This article will provide key insights for GS Paper-I World History  of UPSC IAS Exam.

Table of Content

• What is Industrial Revolution?    
• The pre- Industrial Revolution period in Britain
• Features when the Industrial Revolution had begun
• Why the Industrial Revolution began in Britain?  
• What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?      
• The spread of the Industrial Revolution   
• Living conditions during the Industrial revolution
• Short-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution
• Long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution   
• Conclusion          
• Frequently Asked Questions        

What is Industrial Revolution?

• The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid technological advancements, which occurred roughly from 1750 to 1914.
• It originated in Great Britain and quickly spread to Europe and other parts of the world.
• The revolution brought significant changes in farming, manufacturing, and trade.
• It has also impacted people’s lifestyles and work locations.
• Its influence was so profound that it revolutionized many societies across the globe.

The pre- Industrial Revolution period in Britain:

• Before the 1750, Britain had thrived as an agricultural society, with approximately 80% of the population residing and working on small farms in rural regions.
  • These farms yielded modest crops annually and small herds of animals were raised by people.
• Despite the limited scale of English farms, agriculture remained the dominant economic activity in the country.
• In contrast, manufacturing, mining, and trade employed few individuals in Britain.
• Manufacturing operations were generally small and localized, utilizing basic tools powered by human labour, animals, or waterwheels harnessing the force of swift-flowing rivers.
• The road network was inadequately developed, leading people to travel on foot or horseback.
• Britain’s road system had not improved since around 1300 years earlier.
• Illnesses were prevalent due to poor hygiene, inadequate sewage systems, and contaminated water supplies.
• British society was structured into strict social classes based on birth, wealth, and position.
• The initial industries impacted by the Industrial Revolution were those involved in iron, coal, cotton, and wool production.

Features when the Industrial Revolution had begun:

• During the Industrial Revolution, Britain’s population experienced a population boom due to improved living standards and decreased death rates.
• Factories and textile mills were crucial in the Industrial Revolution, as numerous newfactories and mills were growing all over Britain.
  • These establishments employed a large workforce and machinery to produce vast quantities of goods in a centralized location.
• The emergence of modern towns and cities was a prominent outcome of industrialization.
• New sources of power, such as steam power and electricity had revolutionized various industries, including manufacturing, agriculture, transport, and communication.
• Coal became a crucial resource has it was used to fuel steam engines and powering electrical stations.
• Canals, roads, and railway lines had connected towns and facilitated smoother travel.
• Innovations in transport, such as replacing horse-drawn carriages, improved mobility, leading to less isolated lives for people.
• The communication technologies like telegraph and telephone systems were introduced.
  • This has enhanced the connectivity and communication across distances.
• During the period of urban and industrial growth, the middle class has started emerging as a novel social group.
• The middle class comprised individuals from diverse backgrounds which were distinct from the wealthy aristocratic landowners or the impoverished factory laborers.
  • Middle class included affluent industrialists, merchants, bankers, shopkeepers, educators, doctors, lawyers, managers, clerks, and government officials.
• This middle class stimulated the demand for mass-produced consumer goods.
• They had advocated for the establishment of more educational institutions, universities, and libraries.
• Over the 1800s, the political influence of the British middle class steadily grew.
• Two crucial inventions of the Industrial Revolution were the steamship and the telegraph.
  • They both played vital roles in helping Britain administer its colonies worldwide, reinforcing its imperial dominance.

Why the Industrial Revolution began in Britain?

Rise of the British Empire

• The expansion of the British Empire occurred in two distinct phases:
  • First phase: establishment of the earliest British colonies in North America during the 1600s.
  • Second phase: was related to a series of wars among the European powers in the 18th and early 19th centuries.
• During the first phase, various European powers, including Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch, and Portuguese had claimed new territories worldwide such as the Americas, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, for the next two centuries.
• During thesecond phase, despite losing American colonies during the American War of Independence in 1865, Britain’s dominant naval strength ensured its rise as the imperial power.
• By 1900, the British Empire governed about a quarter of the world’s population and the Earth’s surface.
• Many colonies have supplied essential resources, workforce (including slaves), and markets that fuelled the Industrial Revolution.
• The colonies contributed valuable resources such as-
  • Sugar from Australia and the West Indies
  • Wool from Australia and New Zealand
  • Cotton and tea from India
  • Rubber from Malaya
  • Gold from Australia and South Africa
  • Coffee from Jamaica and Africa
  • Wheat from Australia and Canada
  • Timber from the pine forests of Canada

Britain’s coal supplies

• Britain possessed abundant reserves of coal, a crucial fuel that has powered the Industrial Revolution through steam technology.

Naval power and trading power:

• As an island country, Britain relied on skilled sailors, a formidable navy, and experienced fleets of merchant ships.
  • The East India Company (EIC) was the most prominent merchant trading company.

Individual freedom and the capitalist spirit:

• Britain had higher degree of individual and intellectual freedom than other European nations.
• Such freedoms fostered proper environment for experimentation and risk-taking, which made innovators to explore new methods and ideas freely.
• In contrast, other European Nations faced government restrictions and limited individual liberties that hindered progress and opportunities.

Stable government:

• Before the Industrial Revolution began, Britain enjoyed a prolonged period of relative political and social stability.
• This set it apart from many European counterparts and other countries in the world which were grappled with conflicts.
  • This order and stability encouraged business growth and development.

Superior banking system and capital for investment:

• The increasing trade activities had spurred the expansion of financial services in England, including banking, investment, and insurance sectors, to support and safeguard trade operations.
• Britain’s banking sector were more advanced and performed modern practices as compared to other European countries.
  • This ensured a steady supply of capital at low-interest rates.
• This availability of capital facilitated the establishment of new businesses and financed experiments to develop many inventions.

What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

Agricultural Revolution:

• Around the mid-1600s, significant changes in farming and agriculture laid the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution in Britain.
• These agricultural transformations were collectively known as the Agricultural Revolution.
• They were crucial for the subsequent industrialization that occurred from 1750 onwards.
• The driving force behind these changes were the growing demand for more food to sustain the expanding population.
• During the Agricultural Revolution, vast modifications had occurred in British farmlands.
• Forests were cleared, grazing pastures were converted into crop fields, and marshlands were drained to create additional arable land.
• The Agricultural Revolution was a turning point where agriculture had transformed from a subsistence-based activity to a business-oriented venture.
• Instead of growing food only for sustenance, farmers had started producing surplus food to sell it for profit.
• Landowners had significantly invested in improving livestock, fencing, and farming tools.
• They have also shifted towards cultivating high-yielding crops like wheat and barley, leading to increase in crop production.
• The Enclosure Acts were passed by the British Parliament during the Agricultural Revolution to transfer common lands previously worked by local farmers to the private landowners.
  • Small fragmented plots were amalgamated to produce more efficient and larger fields through enclosures.
  • This enclosure process had restricted local farmers from grazing their animals or cultivating these lands.
  • The previously neglected “waste land” was also enclosed.
• By 1790, about three-quarters of all farming land in Britain was under the control of wealthy landlords, who then leased the land to tenant farmers.
• Many poor individuals were forcibly displaced from the lands they had cultivated for generations without charge.
• These dispossessed people had migrated to the cities and became part of the burgeoning industrial working classes, while others sought new opportunities abroad.

Crop rotation:

• The new commercial approach to farming brought about improvements in crop management.
• For centuries, farmers had practiced crop rotation, leaving certain fields fallow to preserve soil fertility.
• However, in 1730, Charles Townshend had introduced four-field system method in which cultivation was done of different crops in 4 separate fields.
• Each season, the crops were rotated, ensuring that no field remained unused (fallow) and that every field maintained a rich supply of minerals and nutrients, particularly the nitrogen.
• The long-term benefits in crop management and increased productivity helped lay the foundation for further agricultural advancements during the Industrial Revolution.

Improved farm machinery and methods:

• During the early mid-1800s, significant advancements were made in farming techniques, mainly due to the adoption of new agricultural machinery.
• Mechanical drills were introduced, allowing for more efficient seed planting, while reaping machines helped in crop harvesting.
• Threshing machines were used to separate valuable grain from wheat and barley stalks, this further streamlined the farming process.
• These innovations improved efficiency and boosted profits, as larger areas of land could be prepared, cultivated, and harvested within a single season.
• The widespread use of fertilizers by the 1840s enhanced land productivity once again.
• This progress was complemented by developments in animal breeding and rearing techniques.
• Robert Bakewell in the late 1700s had introduced selective breeding practices for livestock.
  • This resulted in a new breed of sheep known as the New Leicester that can produce finer wool and more meat.

Developments in cotton, wool and iron production:

• During the IR, significant innovations occurred in the production of cotton, wool, coal, and iron.
• The most crucial “invention” of this era was a new method of large-scale production called the factory system.
• Before this system, manufacturing took place in small workshops or local cottages, where skilled artisans handcrafted items using muscle power or water-driven machinery.
• The factory system gathered many workers in a single factory site, who may be unskilled and performed repetitive tasks, while the machines powered by waterwheels, steam, and electricity carried out the actual manufacturing process.
• The first factoriescotton mills, were made possible by inventions like the flying shuttle, spinning jenny,water frame, and Crompton’s mule.
  • Result: Britain became the centre of cotton production.
• Themills powered by waterwheels had initially dominated the landscape.
• However, the development of steam power allowed mill owners to establish factories in cities by providing a constant supply of workers and customers.

Iron production:

• Before the Industrial Revolution, obtaining raw metal from iron ore was a time-consuming process.
• In 1709, Abraham Darby produced a new substance called coke.
• Unlike charcoal that was used earlier, coke burned more and were smokeless, making it the perfect fuel to smelt iron ore efficiently.
• This discovery led to the establishment of iron foundries near coalfields, and the iron and coal industries became closely connected.
• In 1784, Henry Cort combined two processes known as “puddling” and “rolling,” enabling large-scale production of pig iron.
  • Result: pig iron production in Britain increased sporadically.
• With increased production of iron, new applications for the metal emerged such as iron utensils like knives, forks, pots, and pans became common.
• Iron became a preferred building material for factories and houses, revolutionizing architectural design.

The development of the steam engine:

• The development of thesteam engine had revolutionized both manufacturing and transportation, and eventually were used in electricity generation.
• Coal emerged as a critical resource to fuel this revolution, resulting in the increasing demand that led to the establishment of new coal mines and the expansion of existing ones at greater depths.
• Many inventors like Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen had devised early steam engines specifically for water pumping in mines.
• James Watt and Matthew Boulton had together enhanced the steam engine’s efficiency.
  • Their firm produced many steam engines that were used in the mining industry, cotton-spinning factories, flour mills, breweries, and sugar cane crushing mills.

Developments in transport:

• As the demand for faster and affordable transport options grew due to increasing demand from merchants and industrialists, innovations in transportation emerged.
• In 1801, English engineer Richard Trevithick built the first steam locomotive, initially designed for roads rather than rails.
• In 1829, George Stephenson had invented the Stephenson’s Rocket, that marked a turning point in locomotive design.
  • Locomotive designs were made more sophisticated, powerful, and capable of achieving higher speeds.
• The Robert Fulton created the first commercial steamship in 1807.
• In 1843, Isambard Kingdom Brunel launched the SS Great Britain, an iron-hulled steamship, signaling the dominance of steamships over sailing vessels for long-distance travel.
• In 1859, Etienne Lenoir had introduced the internal combustion engine, a precursor to modern car engines, using coal gas and air to power the vehicle.
• Henry Ford had implemented assembly-line techniques in 1908, that made automobiles more affordable and accessible.
• In 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright had achieved powered flight using a petrol engine on a wooden glider.
  • This marked the dawn of powered flight, which rapidly progressed during World War I.

Improved roads and bridges:

• The influence of industrialists led to establishment of trusts by the 1830s, that had taken the initiative to build the roads.
• As road conditions improved, the need for reliable and convenient river crossings became evident.
• In 1779, Abraham Darby constructed the world’s first cast-iron bridge known as the Iron Bridge and implemented a toll system for usage.

Railways:

• In 1825, a railway line was constructed in north-east England that marked the convergence of two crucial innovations: the steam engine and rail-mounted mining trucks.
• The expansion of rail networks during the 1830s and 1840s, accompanied by the construction of robust iron bridges for new train routes, caused iron production to double during this period.
• The development of railways in Britain continued at an astounding pace, with Parliament
• This accessibility various commodities, such as fresh flowers and milk to be delivered from one place to another.
• Just like roads, these new railway lines required strong, reliable bridges that could carry locomotives and their cargo across wide rivers and gorges.

Canals:

• Between 1760 and 1820, many 100 canals were dug across Britain that linked major rivers, creating an extensive transport network for the movement of both food and freight.
  • This help in effective transportation of crops from rural areas to cities and conveyed manufactured goods back to the countryside.
• The canals facilitated the smooth movement of coal and other goods, decreasing the time–consuming practice of coastal shipping.
  • This resulted in reduction of the price of coal.
• The cheaper coal transportation led to a decline in the price of cotton weaving, resulting in increased profits for mill owners.

Expansion of factories:

• Advancements during the 1850s ushered in a new era of engineering and machine tools.
• This revolutionary machinery accelerated the production process and reduced the need for a many skilled workers.
• Instead, the focus shifted towards mass production in order to create vast quantities of machine-made goods at lower prices.
• The cotton became the leading export of Britain and it surpassed wool in importance.
• The workers’ housing was situated in close proximity to the mills.
• Many skilled cottage workers lost their jobs, and the factory system prioritized large-scale output over product quality.

The spread of the Industrial Revolution

• Around 1850, many new technological advancements fuelled greater progress in both technology and the economy.
• This period, from 1850 to 1914, is often referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution.
• The discovery of electricity brought further changes, by introducing new power sources for industries and facilitating innovative forms of communication like the telegraph and telephone.
• Despite attempts to keep industrial knowledge within Britain’s borders, the ideas, machines, and designs quickly spread worldwide, with technology becoming a new export.
• Europe was significantly impacted, with Belgium, France, Germany, and other nations embracing industrial developments and modernization.
• In the United States of America, the industry grew rapidly, fuelled by its richnaturalresources.
  • American inventors and innovations propelled the world into the modern era.
• Japan which was once isolated had opened its doors to the West by quickly industrializing through adopting Western ideas and inventions.
• Australia had established steam mills, major roads, pastoral industries, and transport links like railways and steamship travel.
  • However, its industrial development lacked coordination and planning, leading to challenges in the early years of Federation.
• The progress from the Industrial Revolution to the Second Industrial Revolution and beyond paved the way for modern societies.

Living conditions during the Industrial revolution:

• By 1850, the urban population increased sporadically which had a profound impact on people’s lives, especially regarding living conditions and social classes.
• In the 1800s, disparities in living conditions between the rich and poor were already present, stemming from the feudal history and rigid class system.
• The Industrial Revolution brought forth a new social class the “middle class,” who established their homes on the outskirts of towns and cities, benefiting from improved air quality and more space and have access to new railway lines.
• The aristocracy possessed immense wealth, land, and political influence.
• In contrast, the working class, resided in slum areas with inadequate sanitation and overcrowded conditions.
  • Fire hazards and accidents were common due to poor building regulations.
• As cities grew, efforts were made to improve living conditions for workers.
• New urban settlements had replaced slums, offering better planned, drained, and uncluttered areas.
• Public transport allowed workers to live away from factories, and suburbs began to emerge.
• Technological advancements, such as better street lighting and skyscraper construction had transformed city centers, making them more vibrant and safer for leisure activities.
• Many early textile factory owners employed large numbers of children.
  • Children were seen as good workers because they were paid less, and can crawl under the machines to repair broken threads.

Short-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution:

Population growth and urban planning:

• Between the 1750s and 1914, the transformation into industrial societies took place in Britain, the USA, and many European countries.
• The Industrial Revolution led to a significant increase in the world population, especially in the cities where people moved from rural areas seeking new opportunities.
• Cities like Leeds, Manchester, Birmingham, and London experienced rapid growth.
• Despite initial challenges with sanitation and disease, efforts in urban reform improved living conditions.
• New urban settlements replaced overcrowded tenements, providing residents with access to running water, central heating, and improved sewerage systems, leading to better health and reduced disease outbreaks.

Living conditions:

• Street lighting, first gas-powered and then electric, transformed city atmospheres, enabling leisure activities after dark.
• Sport and entertainment became more important during leisure time, and public transport systems expanded, allowing workers to live away from factories.
• Improvements in agriculture reduced the risk of famine and increased food production, contributing to better health.
• The development of railways made travel faster and affordable, benefiting both working and wealthier classes.
• Mass-produced consumer goods became more accessible, and communication improved with the telegraph and telephone.

Emergence of socialism and trade unions:

• Due to poor living conditions in earlier days, there were emergence of trade unions amongst the working class.
  • This has sown the seed of socialism.
• This made the government to pass the Factory Acts.

Long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution

• Global trade has allowed issues like long working hours, poor conditions, and child labor to be outsourced to developing countries.
• Air and water pollution, caused by 19th-century industrial processes, are now linked to adverse effects.
• Coal combustion for steam power led to smog that covered factory towns, and traces of pollutants have been found in historical figures.
  • However, we now realize that coal and otherresources are finite and have severe global environmental consequences.
• Pollution from industries and human waste had severely affected the river’s ecosystem, causing outbreaks of cholera.
• In the 1960s, people began to grasp the issues caused by industrial waste and contamination.
• Chemical dumping without proper care damaged large areas of land and water supplies, leading to health risks.
• The expansion of industries had cleared forests, which disrupted the ecosystem and contributed to landslides and floods.
• The Industrial Revolution’s long-term consequences have shaped the present challenges, emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and environmental awareness.

Conclusion

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, marked a profound transformation in human history, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial powerhouses. This period not only revolutionized manufacturing through the introduction of machinery and the factory system but also had profound social, economic, and political impacts. It spurred urbanization, altered labor patterns, and prompted significant demographic shifts. Economically, it led to an unprecedented increase in productivity and wealth, but also created stark disparities and industrial disputes.

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