Jainism in India

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world. The name derives from “jiva” (soul or life force), which also means “Spiritual Conqueror” when capitalized. The religion maintains that all living things possess an immortal soul that has always existed and will always exist. This soul may be liberated from suffering by adhering to Jain tenets.

In this article, you will know about the rise, spread, sects, Jain councils, and key concepts of Jainism in India. To explore more interesting UPSC History topics of GS Paper -1 like Jainism, check out other articles and IAS Notes of IASToppers.   

Table of Content

• Overview
• History of Jainism
• Introduction of Jainism in India
• Basics about Vardhamana Mahavira
• Jain councils, Sects and Patronage
• Teachings of Jainism
• Two Sects of Jainism in India
• Sub-sects under Digambara and Svetambara Schools
• Popular practices under Jainism in India
• Jain Flag
• Literary Traditions
• Art and architecture
• Conclusion
• Frequently Asked Questions

Overview

• Jainism is one of the three most ancient religions of India, with roots that go back to at least the mid-first century B.C.E. Today, it is still an integral part of Indian culture. 
• Jainism teaches that the path to enlightenment is through nonviolence and reducing harm to living things (including plants and animals) as much as possible.
• Jainism is an ancient religion, believed to be as old as the Vedic religion according to some traditions.
• Central to Jainism is the succession of great teachers known as Tirthankaras. There are 24 Tirthankaras, with Vardhaman Mahavira being the last.
• The first Tirthankara is considered to be Rishabhanath (Rishabhadev), and the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, was born in Varanasi and likely lived in the 8th or 7th century BCE.
• Notably, all Tirthankaras were born Kshatriyas.

Aryan Influence and Brahmanism

• The belief system which would eventually develop into Hinduism arrived in the Indus Valley prior to the 3rd millennium BCE, brought by a coalition of Aryan tribes from Central Asia.
• Aryan referred to a class of people meaning “free” or “noble”. The Aryans brought the Sanskrit language, which became the language of their sacred texts, the Vedas, which inform Hinduism.

Brahmanism

• Brahmanism claimed that the universe operated according to eternal rules set by Brahman, who was absolute reality itself.
• The Vedas were chanted by Hindu priests who interpreted them for the people, leading to religious reform movements due to the majority’s inability to understand Sanskrit.

Astika and Nastika Schools

• The philosophical/religious belief systems that emerged fell into 2 categories:
  • Astika (“there exists”): Accepted the Vedas as the highest spiritual authority.
  • Nastika (“there does not exist”): Rejected the authority of the Vedas and Hindu priests.
• The 3 nastika schools that continued to develop were Charvaka, Buddhism, and Jainism.
• Jainism was championed by the ascetic Vardhamana, later known as Mahavira (“Great Hero”).
• Today, most followers of Jainism live in India, with estimates of upwards of four million followers. Jainism’s teachings have influenced many all over the world.
• Though born a Hindu, Mahatma Gandhi admired the Jains’ commitment to complete nonviolence, and he incorporated that belief into his movement for Indian independence.

History of Jainism:

• Jainism in India originated in the ancient times in Northern India.
• Jainism does not have a single founder, instead, it holds that truth manifests itself in difficulttimes through teachers known as Tirthankaras.
  • Though Rishabhadev or Rishabhanatha is consider as the founder of the Jainism. 
  • The Rishabhadev or Rishabhanatha is the first tirthankara of Jainism.
• Jainism is misunderstood that Mahavira founded Jainism but actually he was the 24th and finalTirthankara.
  • Mahavira had attained spiritual enlightenment and guided others on the path to moksha or liberation.
  • Mahavira had underwent intense penance and meditation to reach a state of pure soulhood.
• Three councils of Jainism:
  • Pataliputra Council: put together the teachings of 11 Angas.
  • Mathura Council and Vallabhi Council I: conducted by Skandila and Nagarjuna to continue the transmission of knowledge after famines.
  • Vallabhi Council II: convened by Svetambara Jain monks to write down the orally transmitted knowledge.
• Spread of Jainism in India is now largely limited to Odisha, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka. 

Introduction of Jainism in India:

• The term ‘Jain’ is derived from ‘Jina’ or ‘Jaina,’ which means ‘Conqueror.’
  • Jina in Jainism is an enlightened human being, who has attained a state of transcendent bliss and omniscience through self discipline.
• Jainism consists of individuals who have successfully controlled and conquered their desires.
• Jainism place of worship is Derasar or Basadi.
• Prominent Jain pilgrimage sites: Dilwara Temple in Mount Abu (Rajasthan), Palitana Temples (Gujarat), Girnar (Gujarat), Shikharji (Jharkhand), and Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).
• 24 tirthankaras: Rishabhanatha or Adinatha, Ajita, Sambhava, Abhinandana, Sumati, Padmaprabha, Suparshva, Chandraprabha, Suvidhi, Shital, Shreyansanath, Vasupujya, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma, Shanti, Kunthu, Ara, Malli, Muni Suvrata, Nami, Nemi, Parshvanatha and Mahavira.
• Similarities between Jainism and buddhism:
  • Jainism and Buddhism both rejects the authority of the Vedas.
  • Buddhism and Jainism both had developed as a response to orthodox Brahminism.
• Difference between Jainism and Buddhism: Unlike Buddhism, Jainism acknowledges the existence of the soul (atman).

Basics about Vardhamana Mahavira:

• Around 540 BC, Prince Vardhamana was born in Vaishali to King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala of the Jnatrika clan.
• When Vardhamana turned 30, he abandoned his home to follow an ascetic life.
• According to Jain scriptures, on the 10th day of Vaishakha that he arrived in Pava, near Patna, where he discovered the ultimate truth of existence- Kevalya.
• He was bestowed with the title ‘Mahavira,’ meaning the great hero.
• He was also referred to as jaina or jitendriya, symbolizing his mastery over the senses, and nirgrantha, signifying his liberation from all attachments.
• The literature that contains the teachings of Vardhamana Mahavira is known as Agamas.
  • Agamas is considered as a holy book of Jainism.
  • 25 bol in Jainism is derived from the Agamas, which helps in understanding the Agamic literature in detail. 

Jain councils, Sects and Patronage

• Jains are divided into two primary sects (though there are others), the Digambara (sky-clad) and the Svetambara (white-clad).
• The views of Svetambara differ significantly in that the Digambara are more orthodox, reject the authoritative Svetambara canon of scripture.
• They believe that only men can attain liberation and that women must wait until they are incarnated as a male to do so, and their monks go naked, rejecting even the need for clothing.
• Mahavira and his first 11 disciples owned nothing and wore nothing.
• The Svetambara clergy wear white, seamless clothing, believe they have retained most of the original scriptures transmitted by Mahavira, and recognize that women can attain liberation as well as men.

Patronage

• Jainism survived and attracted adherents through royal patronage from political powers like the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE).
• It later withstood persecutions under various Muslim rulers from the 12th-16th centuries CE and resisted efforts of Christian missionaries in the 19th century CE.
• Royal Patrons of Jainism
  • South India: Kadamba dynasty, Ganga dynasty, Amoghavarsha, Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty)
  • North India: Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, Harshavardhana, Ama, Kharavela

Teachings of Jainism:

• Jainism is a nontheistic religion, advocating no belief in a creator god but recognizing higher beings (devas), who are mortal.
• Karma directs one’s present life and future incarnations, but the devas have no power over a person and are not sought for guidance or assistance in freeing oneself from karmic bondage.
• Each individual must attain salvation on their own by adhering to a strict spiritual and ethical code of behavior.
• The soul holds a central and fundamental position in Jain philosophy.
• Jainism states that the soul perceives existence and acquires knowledge, while the mind and body are mere collections of matter.
• Moksha in Jainism is the highest achievement and is considered as the goal.
  • Moksha is also known as nirvana in Jainism.
• Mahavira had imparted teachings on the righteous path or Dharma.
• Mahavira had emphasized the renunciation of worldly desires, strict asceticism, and moral development.
• The followers of Jainism are morally obligated to lead a life that causes no harm to any living being.
• Anekantavada in Jainism states that the ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple aspects.
  • Anekantavada emphasises that no single or specific statement can describe the nature of existence and the absolute truth.
• By following the Triratna of Jainism or three jewels of Jainism one can eliminatenegative karma, break free from the cycle of rebirth, and attain salvation.
  • Triratna of Jainism are right belief (Samyak darshana), right knowledge (Samyak gyana), and right conduct (Samyak charitra).
  • Triratna of Jainism are also known as Ratnatraya or the three gems or 3-fold path.
• Principles of Jainism are also known as doctrines of Jainism or5 vows of Jainism.
• Jainism symbol are ashtamangala or eight auspicious symbols especially in svetambara tradition.
• 5 Principles (Vows) of Jainism that needs to be followed by Jainism in their lives:
• Ahimsa (Nonviolence): Avoid harm to all living beings.
• Satya (Truthfulness): Always speak the truth.
• Asteya (Non-stealing): Do not take anything that is not freely given.
• Brahmacharya (Chastity): Practice sexual restraint, with celibacy as the ideal.
• Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness): Do not become attached to worldly possessions.

Ashtamangala Symbol	Meaning
Swastika	Symbolizes peace and well-being for humans
Nandavarta	A large swastika with nine endpoints
Bhadrasana	A throne believed to be sanctified by the feet of Jaina
Shrivatsa (endless knot)	A mark manifested on the chest of a tirthankara image, representing a pure soul
Darpana	A mirror that reflects one’s inner self
Minayugala	Depicts a pair of fish symbolizing the conquest over sexual urges
Vardhamanaka	A shallow dish used as a lamp, symbolizing an increase in wealth, virtue, and merit
Kalasha	A pot filled with pure water, symbolizing the importance of water

Ideology/ Philosophy

Core Beliefs and Practices

Reincarnation and Karma

• Like Hindus and Buddhists, Jains believe in reincarnation, the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth determined by one’s karma.
• In Jainism, karma is a form of subtle matter that adheres to the soul, causing rebirth.
• Bad karma arises from harmful actions towards living beings, which is why Jains strictly practice ahimsa (nonviolence).

Ahimsa: Nonviolence

• Ahimsa is the cornerstone of Jain ethical practice. Jains extend nonviolence to all living beings, including plants and even some nonliving entities like air and water, which are believed to have souls.
• This principle leads to strict vegetarianism and avoidance of root vegetables to prevent killing plants.
• Extreme adherence to nonviolence means even the highest-ranked monks and nuns avoid harming insects, sweeping the ground before them, and wearing face masks to avoid inhaling tiny organisms.

Tirthankaras and Spiritual Leaders

• Jainism reveres 24 Tirthankaras (ford builder), spiritual leaders who attained enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
• The 24th and most significant Tirthankara is Mahavira (599 BCE or later), born Vardhamana, who renounced his worldly life at 30.
• He attained enlightenment after 12 years of ascetic practices, and established a large community of followers.
• Once liberated, an individual becomes a tirthankara and helps others cross the currents of life by shedding desire, freeing oneself from ignorance, and refusing worldly temptations.
• In Jainism, suffering is caused by ignorance of the true nature of reality, and liberation is achieved through spiritual awakening and living the truth one has realized.

Concept of Soul and Reality

• Jains believe all living things have an immortal soul trapped in the cycle of rebirth due to accumulated karma.
• This karma acts like dust on a bookshelf, clouding the soul and binding it to the cycle of samsara.
• Unlike Hinduism and Buddhism, which view karma as action, Jainism sees it as a natural interaction between the soul and reality, causing ignorance and suffering.

Anekantavada: Multiple Perspectives

• Jainism emphasizes the limitations of human perspective, illustrated by the parable of the elephant and the five blind men.
• Each man touches a different part of the elephant and describes it differently, highlighting the subjective nature of human understanding.
• This principle, known as Anekantavada, asserts that reality is manifold and cannot be fully grasped from a single viewpoint.

Ratnatraya: The Three Jewels

To achieve liberation, Jains follow the Ratnatraya or Three Jewels:

1. Samyak Darshana (Right Faith): Belief in the Jain vision of reality.
2. Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge): Understanding the true nature of the soul and the universe.
3. Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct): Living in accordance with Right Faith and Right Knowledge.

Path to Liberation

• Jains believe in a 14-stage path from ignorance and bondage to enlightenment and freedom.
• This journey involves purifying the soul through adherence to the Five Vows and the Three Jewels, ultimately leading to nirvana (liberation).
• Tirthankaras and other advanced spiritual practitioners may reach the 14th stage of enlightenment before death, becoming Jinas (Spiritual Conquerors).

Respect for All Life

• Jains maintain deep respect for all forms of life, both animate and inanimate.
• This profound reverence informs their vegetarianism and meticulous care to avoid harming even the smallest creatures.
• Monastics exemplify this respect through practices like sweeping the ground before walking and wearing face masks to prevent inhaling tiny organisms.

Two Sects of Jainism in India:

• Digambarajainism: Sub-sects- Mula Sangh (original community), Terapanthi, Taranpathi and Bispanthi.
  • Terapanthi, Taranpathi and Bispanthi are modern communities.
• Svetambara jainism: Sub-sects- Sthanakavasi and Murtipujaka.
• There are several other smaller sub-traditions that emerged in the 2nd millennium AD.
• The division of Jainism was the reason of decline of Jainism.

Digambara in Jainism:

• Its monks follow a unique practice of complete nudity, as they believe in abstaining even from clothing.
• Aryikas or Female monks wear plain white sarees without stitching.
• Unlike the Svetambara sect, Digambaras adhere to all 5 principles of Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha, and Brahmacharya, as taught by Mahavira.
• Bhadrabahu was founder of this sect, who due to famine relocated to Karnataka with his disciples.
• It was documentation in the Prakrit Suttapahuda written by Kundakunda.
• Women cannot attain the status of Tirthankaras, and regarded Malli as a male.
• Monastic regulations are stricter within the Digambara School.

Svetambara School:

• They follow the teachings of Parshvanatha, who emphasized only 4 restraints (excluding Brahmacharya) to attain Kevalya or liberation.
  • Parshvanatha was the 23rd tirthankara of Jainism.
• Unlike the Digambara sect, Svetambaras believed that the 23rd and 24th Tirthankaras were married.
• Sthulabhadra was founder of this sect who stayed back in Magadha, in contrast to Bhadrabahu who migrated to Karnataka.
• Monks carry simple white garments, a begging bowl, a brush to clear insects from their path, books and writing materials.
• Tirthankaras can be either male or female, and regarded Malli to have begun her life as a princess.
• Recognizes five eternal substances: Soul (Jiva), Matter (Pudgala), Space (Akasha), Motion (Dharma), and Rest (Adharma).
  • Theydiffered from the Digambara sect, which includes Time (Kala) as the 6^th eternal substance.

Sub-sects under Digambara and Svetambara Schools:

Digambara Schools:

• The Digambara Terapanthis and the Bispanthis both engage in idol worship using ashta–dravya.
  • Bispanthis utilize flowers, fruits and prasad along with aarti.
  • Digambara Terapanthis utilize dry alternatives.
• The Bispanthis worships Tirthankaras, Yaksha and Yakshini deities such as Bhairava and Kshetrapala.
  • Digambara Terapanthis only worships Tirthankaras.
• Bhattarakas serve as spiritual leaders of Bispanthis.
• Bispanthis are primarily concentrated in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• The Digambara Tera Panthi sect rejects the authority of Bhattarakas and focusing only on the worship of Tirthankaras.

Svetambara Schools:

• Sthanakavasi: Their belief lies in offering prayers to Saints instead of idols within a temple.
  • These Saints wear a muhapatti to cover their mouth, distinguishing them from Murtipujakas.
• Murtipujaka (Deravasi): They place idols of the tirthankaras within their temples and engage in worshipping them.
  • Unlike Sthanakavasis, the Saints in this tradition do not wear a muhapatti.
• Terapanthi: Similar to Sthanakavasis, they direct their prayers towards Saints rather than idols within temples.
  • They also wear a muhapatti to cover their mouth.

Popular practices under Jainism in India:

• Santhara in Jainism is a religious practice involving a voluntary fast unto death by gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids.
  • Jain scholars do not consider it as suicide as it is not driven by passion, nor it involves the use of poisons or weapons.
  • Santhara is also known as Sallekhana.
  • Both Jain ascetics and householders can perform Sallekhana.
  • In 2015, the Supreme Court lifted the earlier ban on Sallekhana.
• Pratikraman: is a ritual where Jains seek repentance for their transgressions committed in daily lives and remind themselves not to repeat them.
  • Different types of Pratikraman: Devasi, Rai Pakhi, Chaumasi, and Samvatsari.

Jain Flag:

• The Jain flag consists of five colors: red, yellow, white, green, and dark blue.
• These colors symbolize the Pancha-Parameṣṭhi, which represents the hierarchy of religious authorities in Jainism.
• Each of the 24 tirthankaras is associated with one of these colors.
• The Swastika at the center of the flag represents the embodiment of the soul in 4 different forms- deities, human beings, animals/birds/insects/plants, and hell beings.
• The soul’s progression or regression among these forms is determined by Karma in Jainism.
• The soul’s ultimate goal is to liberate itself from these forms/stages and attain the status of Arihant or Siddha.
• 3 dots above the Swastika represent the Ratnatraya.
• The curve above the 3 dots symbolizes Siddhashila, a timeless realm located at the highest point of the Universe where Arihants and Siddhas reside.

Color	Symbolic Representation
Red	Arihant (attainment of Kevala gyana)
Yellow	Siddha
White	Acharya
Green	Upadhyay
Dark blue	Sadhu

Literary Traditions

Scriptures, Sects, & Practices

Besides the Tattvartha Sutra (composed 2nd-5th centuries CE) there are also other scriptures, not accepted by all Jains, such as the Upangas, Chedasutras, Mulasutras, Prakinasutras, and Culikasutras passed down by oral tradition until committed to writing.

Text	Writer	Notes
Acharanga Sutra	Bhadrabahu	One of the oldest Jain texts, dealing with conduct and ethics.
Sutrakritanga	Bhadrabahu	Discusses various philosophical topics.
Kalpa Sutra	Bhadrabahu	Includes biographies of the Tirthankaras, especially Mahavira.
Tattvartha Sutra	Umaswati (Umasvami)	A comprehensive text on Jain philosophy, recognized by all sects.
Samayasara	Acharya Kundakunda	Focuses on the nature of the soul and its liberation.
Panchastikayasara	Acharya Kundakunda	Discusses the five cosmic substances.
Pravachanasara	Acharya Kundakunda	A text on the ethical and spiritual conduct of monks.
Niyamasara	Acharya Kundakunda	Outlines the rules for spiritual discipline.
Dravyasamgraha	Acharya Nemichandra	A concise text on the substances of the universe.
Gommatsara	Acharya Nemichandra	Comprehensive texts on Jiva (soul) and Karma.
Bhagavati Sutra	Bhadrabahu	An encyclopedic work of Jain teachings.
Siddhanta Shastra	Acharya Bhutabali	Compilation of Jain Agamas (scriptures).
Anuyogadvara Sutra	Anonymous	Discusses the methods of interpreting scriptures.
Shatkhandagama	Acharya Pushpadanta and Bhutabali	Detailed text on Jain karma theory.
Tattvartha-raja-vartika	Akalanka	Commentary on the Tattvartha Sutra.
Ratnakaranda Shravakachara	Acharya Samantabhadra	Guide on the conduct of Jain householders.
Harivamsa Purana	Acharya Jinasena	Jain version of the Harivamsa, focusing on Jain teachings.
Mahapurana	Acharya Jinasena and Gunabhadra	Contains the Adi Purana and the Uttara Purana.
Adi Purana	Acharya Jinasena	Chronicles the life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha.
Uttara Purana	Acharya Gunabhadra	Chronicles the lives of other Tirthankaras.
Trilokasara	Acharya Nemichandra	Discusses Jain cosmology.

Art and architecture

• Jains were prolific builders, similar to Hindus, and their architecture is found throughout India, marked by rich sculptural decoration with deep undercutting, giving a lace-like appearance.
• Themes: Naturalistic carvings of birds, animals, and humorous depictions, such as a cat surrounded by rats, possibly symbolizing penance.

Important Sites

• Mount Abu: Jain temples built by Vimal Shah feature simplistic exteriors contrasted with exuberant marble interiors.
• Lord Bahubali, Gomateshwara, Karnataka: The statue at Shravanabelagola, commissioned by Camundaraya, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
• Mahabalipuram: Rocky and independent Jain temples from the 7^th– 8th centuries, including the large sculptural panel depicting interpretations of the descent of Ganga or Arjuna’s penance.
• Bihar: Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites, also known for early Buddhist shrines.
• Deccan: Remarkable sites include Ellora and Aihole.
• Central India: Deogarh, Khajuraho, Chanderi, and Gwalior.

Types of Jain Architecture

• Stupa/ Chaitya: Used for devotional purposes, with the earliest stupa dating back to the 8th century BCE.
• Mathura Jain Stupas: Excavated at Mathura, these stupas feature cylindrical, three-tier structures.
• Layana (Caves): Predominantly of the Digambara sect, these caves date back to the 6th century and include notable sites like Ellora and Udayagiri.
• Jinalaya (Temples): Features include numerous pillars forming squares, richly carved brackets, and often a Chaumukh (four-faced) design.

Jain Religious Sites

• Dilwara Temple (Rajasthan): Famous for white marble and intricate carvings.
• Ranakpur Temple (Rajasthan): Notable for its Maru-Gurjara architecture.
• Temples in Gujarat: Sacred sites built post-11th century.
• Mount Mangi Tungi (Maharashtra): Features the Statue of Ahimsa, the tallest Jain idol.
• Shikharji (Jharkhand): Significant for being the site where twenty Tirthankaras attained Moksha.
• Khajuraho Group of Monuments (Madhya Pradesh): Houses both Hindu and Jain temples with intricate carvings.

Paintings

• Jain miniature paintings date back to the 7th century A.D., flourishing by the 15th century.
• Mural Paintings: Include themes like Kalpa Sutra and illustrations of Tirthankaras.
• Western Indian Style: Characterized by enlarged physical traits and angular features, often using palm-leaf manuscripts.
• Sittanavasal Paintings: Known for their fresco-secco technique and depictions of Jain Samavasarana.

Examples of Jain Sculptures

• Lohanipur Torso: A polished sandstone statue representing a Jain Tirthankara.
• Gopachal Rock-cut Jain Monuments: Located around Gwalior Fort, depicting Tirthankaras in Padmasana and Kayotsarga postures.
• Vasantgarh Hoard: A collection of 240 Jain bronze idols, showcasing Shwetambar iconography.

Conclusion

Jainism in India is a profound and ancient religion that promotes non-violence, spiritual enlightenment, and the pursuit of a pure and virtuous life. With its emphasis on compassion, self-discipline, and respect for all living beings. Jainism in India offers valuable insights and teachings that can inspire individuals to lead a harmonious and ethical existence.

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