Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

Indian or Hindu Philosophy is divided into six orthodox (astika) schools and three heterodox (nastika) schools. The Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy hold the Vedas, ancient scriptures, in high regard and believe in concepts like karma, rebirth, and moksha. These schools consist of six groups: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Veisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. Each has unique views on the universe, life, and spirituality. Together, these schools provide a multifaceted understanding of Indian philosophy and its application in life and spiritual practice. In this article, you will know meaning of Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy and six schools under it. This is an important topic for GS Paper-1 Art & Culture of UPSC IAS Exam. To explore more interesting UPSC Art & Culture Class 12 topics, check out other articles and IAS Notes of IASToppers.  

Table of Content

• Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy
• Samkhya philosophy
• Yoga philosophy
• Nyaya philosophy
• Vaisheshika philosophy
• Mimamsa (Purva mimansa) philosophy
• Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) philosophy
• Conclusion
• FAQs on Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

• The Orthodox, or astika, schools are part of the original Sanatana Dharma, now known as Hinduism.
• The Orthodox School respected the Vedas as the ultimate scriptures containing salvation’s secrets, without disputing their validity.
• The majority of Indian philosophical schools accept the concepts of karma and rebirth. The ultimate objective, known as moksha, is defined as liberation from the cycle of life and death.
• Its six sub-schools called the Shada Darshana are: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Veisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.

Samkhya philosophy

• “Samkhya” translates to “count“.
• It is the oldest philosophy school.
• It was initiated by Kapil Muni, author of the Samkhya Sutra.
• The Original Samkhya View, rooted around 1^st century AD, proposed a scientific approach to universe creation, negating the need for divine involvement.
  • They credited Prakriti, or nature, for the world’s existence, making them a materialistic philosophy.
• The New Samkhya View, a 4^thcentury AD development, introduced spiritual elements into the philosophy.
  • It believed that the universe was created by the interplay of nature and spirit, or Purusha.
• Both views advocated for salvation through knowledge acquisition, arguing that ignorance was the primary source of human suffering.
• The philosophy is rooted in the idea of dualism or dvaitavada, where the soul and matter are considered distinct elements.
• This principle forms the foundation of all real understanding, which can be derived from three core ideas:
  • Pratyaksha (Perception)
  • Anumana (Inference)
  • Shabda (Hearing)
• This school has garnered recognition for its systematic approach towards inquiry.
• The New Samkhya argued that Prakriti and Purusha represent the essence of reality and are absolute and self-sufficient.
• Since Purusha mirrors the qualities of a male, it is linked with consciousness and is unchangeable.
• On the other hand, Prakriti encapsulates three primary characteristics: cognition, activity, and evolution. These characteristics align it more closely with the female form.

Yoga philosophy

• The philosophy of Yoga represents a union of two fundamental elements.
• It holds the belief that individuals can attain liberation through mindful meditation and the practical application of Yoga techniques.
• The claim is that these methods liberate soul (Purusha) from the material world (Prakriti), eventually leading to spiritual salvation.
• The origin of Yoga, along with its philosophical school, are elaborated upon in Patanjali’s Yogasutra, a work composed around the 2^nd century BC.
• The philosophy of yoga, which is also viewed as a pathway to liberation or ‘mukti’, exercises control over the body, mind, and senses.
• This liberation can be reached by practicing
  • restraint (yama),
  • adhering to principles (niyama),
  • maintaining steady poses (asana),
  • controlling breath (pranayama),
  • selecting a focus (pratyahara),
  • stabilizing the mind (dharana),
  • focusing on the selected subject (dhyana), and
  • attaining a state of unity where the mind and focus merge (samadhi).
• It suggests that these exercises can be beneficial if one acknowledges the presence of a divine entity acting as a guide, advisor, and teacher.
• They could aid an individual in detaching from material concerns and achieving the necessary focus for liberation.

Nyaya philosophy

• The Nyaya philosophy is deeply rooted in the power of logical and rational thinking as a means to comprehend life’s mysteries, including birth, death, and liberation.
• This perspective is believed to have been introduced by Gautama, who is also credited with writing the Nyaya Sutra.
• The Nyaya philosophy advocates that truth can be validated through the use of logical tools (pramana) such as perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana) and comparison (upamana).
• The belief here is that God not only brought the Universe into existence but also maintains it and can bring about its dissolution.
• The philosophy underscores the importance of systematic reasoning and critical thinking.

Vaisheshika philosophy

• The Vaisheshika philosophy has a strong belief in the physical nature of the Universe, and it advocates a realistic and objective viewpoint that governs the cosmos.
• This philosophy is attributed to Kanada Kashyapa, the author of the fundamental text on Vaisheshika philosophy, and thus, he is often recognized as the school’s founder.
  • Important later commentaries were written by Prashastapada, Udayanacharya, and Shridhara.
• It lists six categories of being (padarthas), to which was later added a seventh. These are:
  • Dravya, or substance, the material cause of all compound things produced from it.
    • Dravyas are nine in number: earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, spirit, and mind.
  • Guna, or quality
  • Karma, or action
    • Both guna and karma inhere within dravya and cannot exist independently of it.
  • Samanya, or genus, which denotes characteristic similarities that allow two or more objects to be classed together.
  • Vishesha, or specific difference, which singles out an individual of that class.
  • Samavaya, or inherence, which indicates things inseparably connected.
• They also propose that reality consists of various categories such as action, attribute, genus, inherence, substance, and individual quality.
• Given its scientific orientation, this school contributed to the development of atomic theory, asserting that all physical objects are composed of atoms.
• They rationalize the existence of the Universe by arguing that atoms and molecules combines to form matter, which forms the basis of everything tangible or visible.
• This philosophy played a key role in the inception of physics in the Indian subcontinent and is credited with establishing the mechanical model of the Universe’s formation.
• Despite their scientific leanings, they maintain a belief in a divine entity, viewing God as the guiding principle.
• They also assert that the laws of karma govern the Universe, meaning that human actions dictate outcomes, with rewards or punishments as results.  
• According to them, God decides the value of our actions, determining whether we go to heaven or descend into hell.
• They also hold a belief in liberation, but perceive it in sync with the cyclical process of the Universe’s creation and destruction, a cycle they believe is governed by God’s will.

Mimamsa (Purva mimansa) philosophy

• Mimamsa means practice of logical reasoning, interpretation, and utilization.
• This tradition concentrates on studying the Samhita and Brahmana sections of Vedas.
  • They believe that Vedas contains eternal wisdom and serve as a treasure trove of all knowledge.
• The Sutras of Jaimini, authored around the 3^rd century BC, provide an extensive explanation of Mimamsa philosophy.
• This philosophy was later developed and enhanced by two of its strongest advocates: Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta.
• The core emphasis of this philosophy lies in the ritualistic aspects of the Vedas, suggesting that performing Vedic rituals is key to salvation.
• They assert that to gain spiritual virtue, go to paradise, and achieve salvation, one must adhere to the obligations set forth in the Vedas.
• This school suggests that while performing rituals may lead to salvation, comprehending the rationale and logic behind these Vedic rituals is equally vital.
  • Grasping this understanding enables flawless execution of these rituals, leading to salvation.
• According to Mimamsa, individual actions determine their merits and faults, allowing them to experience heavenly joy as long as their virtuous actions prevail.
• However, they are not exempt from the cycle of life and death. Salvation is what eventually liberates them from this perpetual cycle.
• As the complexity of these rituals is beyond the understanding of most people, they often need the guidance of priests.
• As a result, this philosophy reinforces the social gap among different classes. This gap was leveraged by the Brahmins to retain their influence over the masses, thereby making their dominance in the social structure.

Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) philosophy

• Vedanta, an ancient philosophy, is coined from two terms – ‘Veda‘ and ‘ant‘, symbolizing the culmination of the Vedas’ wisdom.
• It embodies the teachings about life as explored in the Upanishads, the concluding portion of the Vedas.
• The earliest manuscript that laid the foundation for Vedanta was Badrayana’s Brahmasutra.
• The philosophy asserts that the ultimate truth of existence is Brahm, while everything else is considered an illusion or Maya.
• Moreover, it proposes that the atma, or self-awareness, is similar to Brahm. This means if one attains self-awareness, it leads to an understanding of Brahm and consequently, salvation.
• This equivalence also means both atma and Brahm are imperishable and everlasting.
• This philosophy carries socio-cultural implications, suggesting that genuine spirituality is inherently tied to the socio-economic circumstances of one’s birth and life.
• Vedanta philosophy also gave support to the Theory of Karma that believes in the concept of Punarjanama, or reincarnation.
• According to this belief, an individual carries the consequences of their deeds from a previous life into the next. This means some hardships experienced in one’s current life might be the result of past lives.
• The solution to such suffering, as per this philosophy, is not within immediate human ability but lies in the discovery of one’s Brahm.
• Vedanta believes that every action should be driven by the intellect.
  • While the mind is prone to errors, the intellect helps us determine if a particular action aligns with our benefit.
• However, this philosophy underwent significant transformations in the 9^th century AD through the philosophical insights provided by Shankaracharya.
• His interpretations of the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita significantly contributed to the evolution of Advaita Vedanta.
• It branched into six distinct sub-schools.
  • Advaita (Adi Shankara): It proclaims that the individual soul (Atman) and the Ultimate Reality (Brahman) are identical, and the realization of this unity leads to liberation.
  • Visishtadvaita (Ramanuja): It maintains that all diversity converges into a harmonious whole.
  • Dvaita (Madhvacharya): It views the Ultimate Reality (Brahman) and the individual soul (Atman) as separate entities, with devotion (Bhakti) as the path to everlasting salvation.
  • Dvaitadvaita (Nimbarka): It declares that the Ultimate Reality (Brahman) reigns supreme and governs everything.
  • Shuddhadvaita (Vallabhacharya): It asserts that the individual soul and God are one and the same, with no difference between the two.
  • Achintya Bheda Abheda (Chaitanya Mahaprabhu): It believes that the individual soul (Jivatman) simultaneously differs and does not differ from the Ultimate Reality (Brahman).

Conclusion

Orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have profoundly influenced intellectual thought, societal norms, and spiritual practices throughout centuries. Orthodox Schools deliver a diverse spectrum of perceptions – from materialistic and rationalistic views to spiritual and transcendental ideas, each school contributes to a holistic understanding of life and beyond.

Despite different approaches of Orthodox Schools, they remain a testament to the intellectual rigor and spiritual depth of ancient Indian philosophy, continuing to guide individuals in the path of knowledge, self-realization, and liberation. Orthodox Schools of Indian philosophy, known as the “Astika” schools, are those which recognize the authority of the Vedas and encompass a range of philosophical thoughts developed in ancient India.

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