Partition of India            

Partition of India in 1947 stands as a pivotal moment in the nation’s history. Marking the end of British colonial rule, it resulted in the creation of two independent states – India and Pakistan – divided primarily along religious lines. This territorial and political separation, however, was a complex and deeply contested process with far-reaching consequences. In this article, you will learn about Partition of India, background of Partition of India, Mountbatten Plan, impact, conclusion, etc.

This article will provide key insights for GS Paper-I Indian History of UPSC IAS Exam.

Table of Content

• Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947
• Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal?              
• Congress Stand
• Independence and Partition
• Mountbatten as the Viceroy         
• Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947  
• Why Congress Accepted Dominion Status?             
• Rationale for an Early Date (August 15, 1947)         
• Indian Independence Act 1947
• Problems of Early Withdrawal      
• Integration of States        
• Why Congress Accepted Partition?            
• Conclusion          
• Frequently Asked Questions         
• Reference           

Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947:

• The British House of Commons conveyed their intention to withdraw from the Indian subcontinent.
• June 30, 1948, was set as a deadline for the transfer of power, regardless of whether Indian politicians had reached an agreement on the constitution by that time.
• Due to the growing unrest and uncertainty, Clement Attlee, the British Prime Minister had made a significant announcement on February 20, 1947.

Main Points of Attlee’s Statement:

• The British authorities had planned to cede the authority either to a central government structure or, in certain regions, to the existing provincial governments if the constituent assembly is not genuinely representative, meaning that Muslim-majority provinces shall participate in it.
• With the transfer of power, the British would relinquish their powers and obligations concerning the princely states.
• However, these responsibilities would not be handed over to any successor government in British India.
• As part of this shift, Lord Mountbatten was to be replaced by Lord Wavell as the viceroy, signifying change in leadership.
• The statement indicated potential partition and even the possibility of the country’s fragmentation into multiple states.
• This announcement was similar to a reiteration of the Cripps Offer, which was presented earlier.

Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal?

• By setting a specific date, the government aimed to jolt the parties who will then fail to reach an accord on the primary issue at hand.
• With a growing constitutional crisis on the horizon, the government was eager to prevent its escalation.
• To demonstrate British earnestness, the government aimed to persuade the Indian populace of its sincerity.
• Wavell’s assessment had indicated an irreparable erosion of the government’s influence in India.

Congress Stand:

• The Congress agreed to the concept of distributing power among multiple centers due to its implication that the current assembly could proceed with crafting a constitution for its represented regions.
  • This presented an avenue to break free from the current deadlock.
• However, optimistic expectations of a resolution were shattered as the statement had served as a precursor to the ultimate confrontation- partition.
• The League had initiated a campaign of civil disobedience to topple the coalition government in Punjab.

Independence and Partition:

• In the early 1947, the surge of communal riots and the dysfunctionality of the Congress–League coalition led many individuals to entertain the previously unthinkable notion of partition.
• This new sentiment was strongly expressed by Hindu and Sikh communal factions in Bengal and Punjab, who were concerned about being potentially included in Pakistan under a system of mandatory grouping.
• The Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal was exploring the viability of establishing a distinct Hindu province within West Bengal.
• On the 10thMarch in 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru had articulated that the Cabinet Mission’sproposal held the promise of being the most optimal solution if successfully executed.
  • He also highlighted that the sole real alternative was to partition Punjab and Bengal.
• In April 1947, the President of the Congress, J.B. Kripalani had conveyed to the viceroy a perspective that, in lieu of a confrontation, they would create Pakistan on the condition that a fair partition of Bengal and Punjab be permitted.

Mountbatten as the Viceroy

• Mountbatten was swift in making decisions compared to his predecessors as he was given more power with additional authority to make prompt decisions on the ground.
• He enjoyed the advantage of the British government’s resolute determination to expedite their departure.
• His mandate encompassed a period until October 1947 during which he was tasked with exploring the possibilities of both unity and division, eventually providing counsel to the Britishgovernment regarding the manner of transferring power.
  • However, he realized that the general contours of the forthcoming scenario were discernible even prior to his arrival in India.
• The viability of the Cabinet Mission Plan had waned, and Jinnah had remained steadfast in his refusal to settle for anything short of an independent sovereign state.
• Mountbatten had adopted a strategy of attempting to engage and appease both sides of the equation, those who wanted partition and those who were against it.

Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947:

• The notion of freedom through partition had gained substantial traction even before Mountbatten’s arrival in India.
• An innovative proposition, advanced by V.P. Menon, was the prompt transfer of power by granting dominion status along with a provision for secession.
• This approach had circumvented the necessity of awaiting a consensus within the constituent assembly regarding a new political framework.

Central elements of the plan:

• The legislative assemblies of Punjab and Bengal would convene in separate Hindu and Muslim groups to conduct a partition vote.
• If a simple majority within either group had supported partition, then those provinces would be divided accordingly.
• In the event of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be established.
• Sindh’s determination in any matter would be self-directed.
• North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and the Sylhet district of Bengal has to rely on referendums to determine their fate.

Fulfilment of demands:

• As the Congress had embraced the concept of a united India, their other stipulations were accommodated:
  • Excluding princely states from independence – they have option to join either India or Pakistan.
  • Dismissing Bengal’s independence aspiration.
  • Rejecting Hyderabad’s accession to Pakistan (Mountbatten supported the Congress).
  • Attaining freedom by August 15, 1947.
  • Establishment of a boundary commission if partition was executed.
• Hence, the League’s demand for Pakistan’s creation was partly met, while the Congress’ commitment to unity influenced the design of Pakistan to be as compact as feasible.
• Mountbatten’s approach aimed to bifurcate India and also preserving the highest achievable degree of cohesion.

Why Congress Accepted Dominion Status?

• The Congress had displayed a willingness to embrace dominion status, a departure from the ethos of the Lahore Congress (1929).
• This shift in stance was motivated by factors such as-
  • It promised a smooth and expeditious power transition;
  • The Congress had recognized the urgency of wielding authority to manage the volatile circumstances;
  • It would facilitate essential continuity within the administration of the armed forces.
• From Britain’s perspective, granting dominion status presented an opportunity to retain India within the Commonwealth, even if on a temporary basis as India has great economic potency, its defense capabilities, and the substantial trade and investment value.

Rationale for an Early Date (August 15, 1947)

• Britain tried to attain the Congress’ endorsement of dominion status, to evade responsibility of the growing communal tensions.
• The legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab had expeditiously endorsed the partition of these two provinces.
• Consequently, East Bengal and West Punjab aligned with Pakistan, while West Bengal and East Punjab remained within the Indian Union.
• The referendum in Sylhet culminated in the inclusion of that district within East Bengal.
• To delineate the borders of the new provinces, two boundary commissions were established, each focusing on a specific province.
• The referendum in NWFP leaned in favour of Pakistan, with the Provincial Congressabstaining from participation.
  • Both Baluchistan and Sindh chose to join Pakistan.

Indian Independence Act 1947:

• The Indian Independence Act 1947, was aligned with the Mountbatten Plan.
• It received approval from the British Parliament on July 5, 1947, and was granted royal assent on July 18, 1947.
• This act officially came into effect on August 15, 1947.
• According to the Act’s provisions, two separate and independent dominions, India and Pakistan, were to be established, commencing from August 15, 1947.
• Each dominion was to be overseen by a governor-general responsible for its smooth operation.
• The constituent assembly of each new dominion would exercise their respective legislative powers, leading to the automatic dissolution of the existing Central Legislative Assembly and the Council of States.
• For the interim period, until a new constitution was adopted by each dominion, the governance of both the nations would be as per the Government of India Act, 1935.
• In accordance with the act, Pakistan attained independence on August 14, while India attained it on August 15, 1947.
• M.A. Jinnah took on the role of the first Governor-General of Pakistan.
• India opted to retain Lord Mountbatten as its Governor-General.

Problems of Early Withdrawal

• The developments during Mountbatten’s tenure led to complications in coordinating the intricacies of partition and proved ineffective in preventing the Punjab massacre due to factors:
• The absence of transitional organizational frameworks to address the challenges arising from partition-related issues.
• Mountbatten’s initial intent was to serve as the shared Governor-General of both India and Pakistan, in order to behave like a vital link.
  • However, Jinnah’s aspiration for this position in Pakistan caused a divergence in their plans.
• There was delay in announcing the Boundary Commission Award, presided over by Radcliffe.
• Although the award was ready by August 12, 1947, Mountbatten opted to disclose it after August 15 to escape the Britain from any accountability for the ensuing disturbances.
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Integration of States

• During 1946-47, a fresh surge of the State People’s Movement had emerged that advocated for political rights and representation in the Constituent Assembly.
• Spearheaded by Nehru, the All-India State People’s Conference had convened in Udaipur (1945) and Gwalior (April 1947).
• During these sessions, he emphasized that states declining participation in the Constituent Assembly would be regarded as hostile.
• By July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel had assumed the leadership of the new States Department.
• Under Vallabhbhai Patel’s guidance, the integration of Indian states occurred in two distinct phases, employing both baits, threats and pressure of masses.
• The Initial Phase encompassed the period up to August 15, 1947.
• During this time, all states, except Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Junagarh had signed an instrument of accession with the Indian government to recognize central authority over defense, external affairs, and communication.
• The princely rulers agreed to this agreement for two main reasons:
  • They were relinquishing functions that they had never truly possessed (as these 3 functions earlier had been under British paramountcy);
  • There was no alteration in their internal political structure.
• The Second Phase was more challenging as it involved the intricate process of “integration” of states with adjacent provinces or forming new entities like the Kathiawar Union, Vindhya and Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, or Himachal Pradesh.
• There were also internal constitutionaladjustments in states that had retained their prior borders such as Hyderabad, Mysore, and Travancore–Cochin.
  • This process was completed within a year.
• The incentive extended during this phase was a substantial privy purse, alongside the elevation of certain princes to the roles of governors and Rajpramukhs within independent India.

Why Congress Accepted Partition?

• The Congress was compelled by the inability to encompass the Muslim masses into the national movement, that eventually acknowledged the unavoidable partition.
• The partition distinctly reflected the dynamic of success and failure within the Congress-led anti-imperialist campaign.
• The Congress had a dualresponsibility:
  • Organizing an amalgamation of diverse classes, communities, groups, and regions into a unified nation;
  • Procuring independence for this collective entity.
• Although the Congress triumphed in cultivating a sufficiently strong national consciousness to pressurize the British to withdraw from India, it failed to unite the nation, particularly in incorporating the Muslim populace.
• A swift relinquishment of power can stop the escalation of the ‘direct action’ and communal strife.
• The Interim Government’s near-collapse had rendered the notion of Pakistan virtually inevitable.
• The partition blueprint had averted the risk of independence for the princely states, which could have posed threat to Indian cohesion, engendering a Balkanized scenario.
• Embracing partition marked the culmination of a sequence of gradual concessions in response to the League’s campaign for a separate Muslim state:
  • During the Cripps Mission (1942), autonomy for Muslim-majority provinces was conceded.
  • In the Gandhi-Jinnah negotiations (1944), Gandhi had acknowledged the right of self-determination for Muslim-majority provinces.
  • Post the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946), the Congress had conceded the possibility of Muslim-majority provinces establishing separate constituent assemblies.
    • The Congress did not oppose compulsory grouping in December 1946.
  • The formal reference to Pakistan emerged in March 1947, with a CWC resolution indicating that Punjab (and by extension, Bengal) has to be partitioned if the nation was divided.
  • The 3rd June Plan marked the Congress’ acceptance of partition.
• While asserting the Constituent Assembly’s sovereignty, the Congress, had acknowledged compulsory grouping and accepted partition due to its incapacity to quell the surge of communal violence.
• The Congress harboured a considerable degree of optimism and misjudged the complexities of communal sentiments, notably exemplified by Nehru, who expressed varying viewpoints.
• The communalism that characterized the 1920s and 1930s had diverged from the fervour of the 1940s, which had championed an assertive ‘Muslim nation’.
• The Congress leadership had underrated the potency of this particular type of communalism.
• Gandhi had encountered powerlessness stemming from the communal polarization of the populace.
  • Gandhi had found that there was no alternative but to embrace partition, as it was the people’s desire.
  • Gandhi had urged Congress members not to embrace it wholeheartedly.

Conclusion

The partition of India in 1947 remains a defining moment in the subcontinent’s history. While it achieved the goal of independence from British rule, it came at a devastating cost. The partition of India was a complex event with far-reaching consequences. By understanding its causes and effects, we can strive to ensure such a tragedy is never repeated.  India, as a nation built on unity in diversity, must learn from this experience to promote social harmony and inclusive development.

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