Second World War and India

During Second World War offer a complex and intriguing facet of both global conflict history and Indian colonial legacy. As the war unfolded from 1939 to 1945, India, then under British colonial rule, became a crucial player, contributing millions of soldiers and substantial resources. In this article, you will learn reasons behind Second World War (World War II), nationalistic response to it, August Offer, Individual Satyagraha, Cripps Mission, etc.

This article will provide key insights for GS Paper- I Indian History of UPSC IAS Exam.

Table of Content

• Second World War (World War II)
• Nationalistic Response to Second World War          
• Government Attitude and Congress Ministries’ Resignation
• Government’s Hidden Agenda      
• Debates over the Immediate Mass Satyagraha      
• August Offer       
• Responses to August Offer & its evaluation             
• Individual Satyagraha      
• Nehru as a Successor to Gandhi  
• Cripps Mission   
• Why Cripps Mission had Failed?  
• Responses to proposals by Cripps Mission
• Critical analysis of proposals by Cripps Mission      
• Conclusion          
• Frequently Asked Questions         
• Reference           

Second World War (World War II)

• Second World War was the largest and deadliest conflict in human history.
• Second World War was caused in part by the economic crisis of the Great Depression and by political tensions left unresolved following the end of World War I.
• The principal belligerents were the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allies (France, Great Britain, U.S., Soviet Union, and China).
• The war began when Nazi Germany had invaded Poland in 1939.
• Polandhad guarantees of French and British military support, if it is ever attacked by Germany. 
• Soon after, Britain declared war on Germany, and the British Government of India pledged India’s support, a move not consulted with Indian opinion.

Nationalistic Response to Second World War

• Congress, despite disagreeing with Britain’s unilateral decision, conditionally backed the war effort.
• They insisted on 2 main conditions: Organizing a constituent assembly post-war to shape a free India’s political structure and establishing a genuinely responsible government at the Centre immediately.
• However, Viceroy Linlithgow rejected these terms, causing Congress to argue that public support for the war required these conditions.
• During a Congress Working Committee (CWC) meeting in Wardha, opinions diverged on supporting British war efforts.
• Gandhi, sympathizing with Britain due to his aversion to fascism, advocated unconditional support to the Allies, distinguishing them from totalitarian regimes.
• On the contrary, figures like Subhas Bose and socialist leaders saw both sides as imperialist, advocating for civil disobedience to seize freedom from Britain amidst the chaos.
• Nehru, however recognized justice on Britain’s side, but he opposed Indian participation until India gained independence.
• Gandhi eventually aligned with Nehru’s stance, adopted by the CWC, which condemned fascist aggression and demanded proof of Britain’s fight for democracy by ending imperialism in India and outlining post-war democratic principles.
• The Congress leadership aimed to extend cooperation to the viceroy and the British Government, seeking avenues for mutual understanding.

Government Attitude and Congress Ministries’ Resignation

• The government’s reaction was completely negative.
• Viceroy Linlithgow, in his statement on October 17, 1939, tried to involve the Muslim League and the princes against the Congress.

The government:

• Refused to clearly state British war aims besides saying Britain was fighting against aggression.
• Mentioned it would discuss with various groups in India, including the Indian princes, about potential modifications to the Government of India Act of 1935.
• Promised to establish a “consultative committee” for seeking advice as needed.

Government’s Hidden Agenda

• Linlithgow’s words were part of Britain’s overall strategy – “to use the war to regain power from Congress” by sparking conflict and then seizing extreme authority.
• Even before the war began, the Central Government gained extra powers over provinces by changing laws.
• The Defense of India ordinance limited freedoms right after the war started.
• In May 1940, a secret plan aimed at attacking Congress was drafted.
• Britain could then call-in allied troops and gain global sympathy by painting Congress as supporting Japan and Germany.
• British leaders, Churchill and Zetland, supported these harsh policies and labelled Congress as purely Hindu.
• Gandhi criticized the government’s disregard for Indian opinion, saying, “No democracy for India if Britain has a say.”
•  He promised to protect minority rights as long as they didn’t oppose independence.

Congress Decides to Quit:

• On October 23, 1939, the CWC:
  • Rejected the viceroy’s statement as old imperialism
  • Refused to back the war
  • Urged congress ministries to resign in the provinces

Debates over the Immediate Mass Satyagraha

• Following Linlithgow’s statement in October 1939, the debate about starting an immediate mass struggle surfaced once more.
• Gandhi and his supporters were cautious about starting a struggle right away as they believed that-
  • The allied cause was just.
  • There was a risk of communal riots due to the lack of Hindu-Muslim unity.
  • The Congress organization was in disarray, and the environment wasn’t suitable for a mass struggle.
  • The masses were not prepared for a struggle.
  • Instead, they proposed strengthening the Congress organization, engaging in political work among the masses, and negotiating until all options for a peaceful settlement were exhausted.
  • Only then would they consider beginning the struggle.
  • In January 1940, Linlithgow declared, “The goal of British policy in India after the war is Dominion status of Westminster variety.”
  • During its meeting in Allahabad in November 1939, the CWC passed a resolution expressing that the ongoing war and British and French policies, particularly British statements concerning India, indicated imperialist motives.
  • They emphasized that the Congress couldn’t align with such a war or policy and demanded recognition of India’s independence.
  • They insisted that Indians should have the right to frame their constitution through a constituent assembly to address communal and other issues.
• The Congress session in Ramgarh in March 1940, chaired by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, concluded that a battle was necessary, but there was disagreement about the approach.
• It was agreed to leave the decision about the approach and timing to Gandhi.
• However, Gandhi favoured continued cooperation at the provincial level, offering moral support to the British war effort on a non-violent basis.
• Nehru insisted that complete independence for India must be a precondition for Congress support to the British war effort.
• Subhash Bose advocated for direct action against the colonial government, emphasizing that Britain’s difficulties presented opportunities for India.
• The Congress declared at the session that nothing less than complete independence would be acceptable to the people of India.
• They rejected dominion status and insisted that sovereignty must reside with the people, whether in the princely states or the provinces.
• It was decided that civil disobedience would be resorted to when the Congress organization was deemed ready or if circumstances led to a crisis.

Pakistan Resolution-Lahore (March 1940):

• The Muslim League passed a resolution calling for the formation of independent states, with autonomous and sovereign constituent units, in geographically contiguous areas where Muslims formed the majority, with adequate safeguards for minority Muslims.

August Offer

• Hitler’s remarkable victories and the collapse of Belgium, Holland, and France made England more willing to make peace.
• With the war in Europe taking a new direction, the leading figures of the Congress were once again in a difficult situation.
• Both Gandhi and Nehru firmly opposed the idea of exploiting Britain’s situation.
• The Congress was open to compromise, proposing that the British government allow them to establish a temporary government during the war.
• However, the government showed little interest in this. Instead, they made their own offer to secure India’s cooperation in the war effort.
• In August 1940, Linlithgow presented the August Offer, which suggested:
  • Making dominion status the goal for India.
  • Expanding the viceroy’s executive council to include a majority of Indian members, drawn from major political parties.
  • Establishing a constituent assembly after the war, where mainly Indians would determine the constitution based on their social, economic, and political ideals.
  • This was contingent upon the government fulfilling its obligations regarding defence, minority rights, treaties with States, and all India services.
  • Ensuring that no future constitution would be adopted without the consent of minorities.

Responses to August Offer & its evaluation

• The Congress said no to the August Offer.
• Nehru mentioned that the idea of Dominion status was completely out of the picture.
• Gandhi noted that the declaration had made the gap between the nationalists and British rulers even wider.
• The Muslim League was happy with the assurance given to them and stuck to their stance that partition was the only solution.

Evaluation

• For the first time, Indians were recognized for their right to create their constitution, and the Congress’ demand for a constituent assembly was accepted. Dominion status was clearly offered.
• In July 1941, the viceroy’s executive council was expanded, giving Indians a majority for the first time, but the British still controlled defense, finance, and home affairs.
• Additionally, a National Defense Council was established, with only advisory duties.

Individual Satyagraha

• The government was firm in its stance that no progress in the constitution could happen until the Congress and Muslim leaders reaches an agreement.
• It passed many laws limiting freedom of speech, press, and the right to form groups.
• In late 1940, the Congress once again turned to Gandhi for leadership.
• Gandhi had started planning for a big protest within his strategy.
• He chose to start a small satyagraha, involving selected individuals in each area.
• The goals of this satyagraha were- to show that nationalists were not weak; to express people’s disinterest in the war and their dislike for both Nazism and India’s rulers; and to give the government another chance to peacefully consider Congress’s demands.
• Satyagrahis demanded freedom of speech against the war through an anti-war statement.
• If not arrested, they would repeat it and march to Delhi, starting what became the ‘Delhi Chalo Movement’.
• Vinoba Bhave and Nehru were among the first satyagrahis.
• By May 1941, 25,000 people had been punished for individual disobedience.

Nehru as a Successor to Gandhi

• In December 1941, during Japan’s aggressive actions, Congress leaders were eager to defend India and help the Allies.
• Despite Gandhi and Nehru’s objections, the CWC passed a resolution offering to help the government defend India if full independence was granted after the war and some power was transferred immediately.
• This is when Gandhi chose Nehru as his successor, even when Nehru and Gandhi had different views on modernity, religion, God, State, and industrialization.
• Nehru didn’t care much for religion, while Gandhi had strong beliefs about his own version of God.
• Nehru thought industrialization was key to alleviating India’s widespread poverty, whereas Gandhi advocated for reviving the rural economy.
• Nehru trusted the power of the modern State to reform society, but Gandhi doubted State power and relied on individuals and communities.
• Both shared a sense of patriotism for India as a whole and believed in non-violence and democracy.
• Gandhi may have favoured Nehru because he embodied the pluralist, inclusive idea of India that Gandhi stood for.
• Other alternatives like Patel, Rajaji, Azad, Kripalani, and Rajendra Prasad, had more sectional interests and affiliations.
• Nehru, however, was a Hindu trusted by Muslims, a north-Indian respected in south India, and admired by women.
• Like Gandhi, Nehru was a leader for all of India, offering hope for a more prosperous and peaceful society.

Cripps Mission

• In March 1942, a team led by Stafford Cripps was sent to India with plans for changes to ask for Indian help in the war.
• Stafford Cripps was a leader of the Labour Party, in charge of the House of Commons, and a member of the British War Cabinet who supported the Indian freedom movement.

Why Cripps Mission was Sent?

• Because Britain was having trouble in Southeast Asia, and there was a real fear of Japan invading India, so Indian help became very important.
• Allies like the USA, USSR, and China were pushing Britain to get India on board.
• Indian nationalists agreed to help the Allies if they got significant power right away and full independence after the war.

Main Proposals of Cripps Mission:

• Make an Indian Union with a dominion status.
• It could decide its relations with the Commonwealth and join groups like the United Nations.
• After the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a new constitution.
• Some members would be chosen by the provinces, and some by the princes.
• Britain would agree to the new constitution with 2 conditions:
  • Provinces could choose to not join the Union and have their own constitution.
  • The new group making the constitution and Britain would make a treaty to give power and protect minorities.
• Until then, Britain would still control defence in India, and the governor-general’s powers would stay the same.

Difference from the Past proposals and Implications

• Changes from previous ideas and consequences the suggestions were not the same as before in several ways—
• The creation of the constitution was to be entirely in Indian control now (not just mostly in Indian control—as stated in the August Offer).
• A clear plan was outlined for the constituent assembly.
• Provinces had the choice to create their own constitution—a plan for India’s division.
• Independent India could opt out of the Commonwealth.
• Indians were given a significant role in the interim administration.

Why Cripps Mission had Failed?

• The CrippsMission suggestions did not meet the expectations of Indian nationalists and seemed more like a tool for the United States and China.
• Various parties and groups had issues with the suggestions for different reasons:
• The Congress objected to:
  • The offer of dominion status instead of complete independence;
  • Representation of the princely states by nominees rather than elected representatives;
  • Allowing provinces to secede, which went against national unity;
  • The lack of a clear plan for immediate power transfer and a say in defense matters;
  • The Governor-General still had too much power,
  • The demand for them to be merely a constitutional head was ignored.
• Nehru and Maulana Azad represented the Congress in negotiations.

Responses to proposals by Cripps Mission

• The Muslim League:
  • Criticized the idea of a unified Indian Union;
  • Disagreed with the process for forming a constituent assembly and deciding on provinces joining the Union;
  • Believed the suggestions denied Muslims the right to self-determination and the formation of Pakistan.
• Other groups also opposed provinces’ right to secede.
• The Liberals saw it as a threat to India’s unity and security.
• The Hindu Mahasabha questioned the basis for this right.
• Depressed classes feared being vulnerable to caste Hindus after partition.
• Sikhs objected to losing Punjab.

Critical analysis of proposals by Cripps Mission

• The explanation that the suggestions aimed to clarify general provisions rather than replace the August Offer raised doubts about British intentions.
• Cripps’ inability to go beyond the Draft Declaration and his inflexible attitude worsened the deadlock.
• Initially mentioning a “cabinet” and “national government,” he later clarified it as an expanded executive council.
• The accession process was vague.
• Secession decisions required a 60% majority in the legislature or a simple majority in a plebiscite.
• This disadvantaged Hindus in Punjab and Bengal if they wished to join the Indian Union.
• It wasn’t clear who would oversee and interpret the power transfer treaty.
• Churchill, Amery, Linlithgow, and Ward consistently opposed Cripps’ efforts.
• Talks stalled over the viceroy’s veto power.
• Gandhi likened the scheme to a “post-dated cheque,” while Nehru criticized the retention of autocratic powers, foreseeing a few becoming the viceroy’s followers.
• Cripps returned home, leaving behind a frustrated Indian populace, sympathetic to victims of Fascist aggression but feeling the need to confront imperialism.

Conclusion

India’s involvement in Second World War was a significant chapter in its colonial history, illustrating the complex interplay between colonial obligations and the burgeoning quest for independence. While the war exacerbated economic hardships and political unrest within India, it also catalyzed a crucial shift towards self-governance. The contributions of over 2.5 million Indian soldiers underscored India’s indispensable role in the Allied victory, highlighting both valor and sacrifice on a global stage.

Moreover, the war accelerated the process of political change. The Quit India Movement, launched during the war, showcased India’s intensified demand for independence, compelling Britain to reconsider its colonial stance post-war. The economic strains and the political awakening fostered during this period directly influenced the negotiations that eventually led to India’s independence in 1947.

Ref: Source-1

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